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E/CN.17/1998/7/Add.2 |
Economic and Social Council
Distr. GENERAL
20 April-1 May 1998
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
Economic and Social Council
Commission on Sustainable Development
Sixth session
20 April-1 May 1998
Progress in the implementation of the Programme of Action for the
Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States
Report of the Secretary-General
Addendum
Management of wastes in small island developing States *
(* The present report has been prepared by the United Nations Environment
Programme in accordance with arrangements agreed to by the Inter-Agency
Committee on Sustainable Development; it is the result of consultation and
information exchange between United Nations agencies, interested government
agencies and a range of other institutions and individuals.)
Contents
Paragraphs Page
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3
II. Current situation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11 3
A. Solid waste management. . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 3
B. Industrial and hazardous wastes . . . . . . . 6-7 3
C. Wastewater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4
D. Ship-generated or transported waste . . . . . 9 4
E. Status of related strategies, including
legislation and financing . . . . . . . . . . 10-11 4
III. Action taken at the national, regional and
international levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-33 4
A. Effort in small island developing States at
the national and regional levels. . . . . . . 12-28 4
1. Progress in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . 13-19 5
2. Progress in the Caribbean . . . . . . . . 20-25 6
3. Progress in other regions . . . . . . . . 26-27 7
B. International efforts aimed at assisting small
island developing States in coping with the
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-33 7
IV. Recommendations for future action at the national,
regional and international levels . . . . . . . . 34 8
I. Introduction
1. The present report reviews the general status of waste
management in small island developing States, including
progress made in achieving the objectives set out in the
Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of
Small Island Developing States, as well as impediments to
sustainable waste management, and identifies future
priority actions at the national, regional and global levels
in the field of waste management.
II. Current situation
2. The environmental problems of small island
developing States are closely related to issues that pertain
to the sustainable use of natural resources and the
environmentally sound management of wastes. The unique
social, economic and environmental characteristics of small
island developing States, such as high population density,
limited availability of land space and the lack of human and
financial resources, reduce the choice of appropriate
options for sound management of waste. Furthermore,
tourists produce large amounts of wastes, especially during
the peak tourism period, compounding the difficulty of
small island developing States' authorities to manage waste
with their limited capacities. The Global Conference on the
Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States
stressed the urgent need to develop local strategies and
capabilities for the implementation of sustainable waste
management within the context of sustainable development.
So far, however, there have been few attempts to develop
an integrated and comprehensive approach to waste
management strategies.
A. Solid waste management
3. In many cities of small island developing States, the
lack of adequate treatment of solid wastes, including
industrial wastes, remains one of the major problems to be
solved. Waste separation and recycling is still in its early
stages in many small island developing States, though some
attempts have been made to reduce the amounts of wastes
generated. Programmes have not often been implemented
due to the lack of capabilities for technical
analysis/assessment, planning, financing and public
support. In the field of waste separation at source, upon
which the promotion of recycling should largely depend,
there have been a few systematic activities in small island
developing States, related to the recycling of cans or
separation of organic material for composting. Recycling
is an effective process but in the urban areas of many small
island developing States, it is not economically viable.
4. Wastes are disposed of in various ways, such as in
landfills or by means of composting, incineration, open
burning or indiscriminate dumping on open land or in rivers
and coastal waters. There are very few sanitary landfills in
small island developing States. Poorly managed landfill
sites -- particularly open dumping sites, which are still
common -- seriously threaten environmental safety and
increase health hazards. In addition, open dumping and
illegal landfills are a common urban eyesore and reduce
property values. Solid materials, surface run-off and
leachate from wastes can have devastating effects on
freshwater and marine ecosystems.
5. Incineration is generally used for the destruction of
medical wastes, unused chemicals and other combustible
hazardous materials. In many instances, such wastes are
burned in semi-open areas, without proper facilities for
removing the pollutants and treating the ashes and unburnt
materials. In some small island developing States where
available land is extremely scarce, incineration may be the
only available treatment option. Other options, however,
should be carefully evaluated before embarking on
incineration, considering the pollution that it causes and the
large capital investments and operational costs that it
entails. Composting, a traditional practice in small island
developing States, is widely used but it is less practical in
urban areas. Composting is not only a useful mechanism
for reducing the amount of disposed organic waste but it
also produces a valuable substitute for artificial fertilizers.
B. Industrial and hazardous wastes
6. The primary problem in handling industrial and
hazardous wastes is that in most cases, there are no proper
facilities for their storage and disposal in small island
developing States. A large proportion of industrial and
hazardous wastes is often disposed of in the municipal solid
waste stream or even dumped without any control, although
this may be prohibited by law. Leakages are quite common.
7. The sources of industrial wastes in small island
developing States are mainly fish processing,
manufacturing processes, mining, quarrying and
agro-industry, such as sugar and rum production. In a number
of small island developing States, oil refining and
petrochemical production also generate industrial wastes.
Industries are often situated in areas close to coasts or water
bodies, and solid and liquid wastes are directly discharged
into them normally with very little if any pretreatment.
Probably due to the lack of technological capabilities,
end-of-pipe solutions rather than reduction of waste generation
are seen as the major option to control pollution resulting
from wastes. Major components of hazardous wastes
generated in small island developing States are chemicals,
including agrochemicals, heavy metals and medical wastes.
These are usually incinerated with insufficient emission
control equipments, buried at source, or more often
disposed of in dump sites without proper control systems.
Many small island developing States have still not ratified
the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal.
C. Wastewater
8. Liquid wastes are major pollutants of freshwater
systems -- enclosed coastal waters, aquifers and
groundwater. Poor or non-existent piped sewerage systems
in many rural and urban areas make sewage treatment
difficult in small island developing States. Only a fraction
of industrial and municipal wastewater is treated before
being discharged into the surrounding land and water
resources. Since many of the existing systems are operated
in an unsanitary manner without proper monitoring, they
threaten human health, either directly through the
contamination of water supplies or indirectly through the
contamination of food and fodder. Effective management
strategies for wastewater treatment, including reuse, are
lacking in most small island developing States, and when
in place they are poorly implemented. Moreover, a lack of
technical capabilities to operate and maintain the existing
facilities for sewage treatment make it difficult to control
wastewater. In small urban and rural areas, such alternatives
as composting sewage and the enhanced use of septic tanks
have been developed. The septic tank has been an effective
treatment method for wastewater in areas occupied by a
limited population. A number of problems, however, have
been identified, such as limited control over design, lack
of sludge removal and poor facilities to dispose of sludge.
D. Ship-generated or transported waste
9. Solid and liquid wastes generated by ships and cruise
vessels and the resulting pollution are of considerable
concern to small island developing States. There is almost
an entire lack of port reception facilities for accepting
ship-borne wastes or for avoiding oil spills in ports. A few
international and regional initiatives have been taken to
protect ports from such wastes, but much remains to be
done for the protection of the marine environment.
E. Status of related strategies, including
legislation and financing
10. Because of the lack of legal and regulatory
frameworks for waste management, small island developing
States often rely on non-specific legislation, such as public
health acts. Enforcement, moreover, is poor because of the
limited number of trained officers, cultural and social
difficulties, and insufficient institutional arrangements.
Waste management departments are generally low-priority
establishments within local governments. Strategic
planning on waste management has been carried out in
many small island developing States for various sectors.
However, implementation remains generally inadequate.
Efforts at public awareness-raising have been made in
almost all small island developing States through formal
or informal systems. Their impact, particularly on younger
people, has been positive and should facilitate further
implementation of scientific waste management in the
future.
11. Suitable financial planning for the complete cycle of
waste management has not been well developed in most
small island developing States, resulting in severely
underfunded operations, shortage of proper facilities and
trained operators. One of the most disturbing problems is
the lack of financial autonomy. Where waste management
departments are self-financing, the revenue generated is
often used for other purposes. Tools for mobilizing
financial resources, such as government budgetary
allocations, charge systems and other relevant economic
instruments, have yet to be developed and included as core
elements of financial strategies. Information on waste
management and related technologies suitable for small
island developing States are still difficult to access,
although numerous reports on various aspects of waste
management have been published.
III. Action taken at the national,
regional and international levels
A. Effort in small island developing States at
the national and regional levels
12. The present section covers the policies adopted and
measures taken on waste management in small island
developing States since 1994. Most of the activities
initiated as a consequence of the Global Conference are still
at an early stage of implementation, although the awareness
of sustainable management of waste has increased in both
the public and private sectors.
1. Progress in the Pacific
13. The Pacific small island developing States have been
very active in policy planning and public
awareness-building activities on waste management.
Implementation, however, leaves much to be desired.
Several training programmes have been carried out; other
initiatives aimed at providing further support are at an
advanced stage of planning. A regional waste minimization,
management and pollution prevention programme,
coordinated by the South Pacific Regional Environment
Programme (SPREP), has been formulated and agreed to
by all Pacific island countries. The programme is designed
to implement proper strategies for the protection,
monitoring and control of land-based pollution.
Implementation has recently commenced, with the support
of Australia, Canada and New Zealand.
14. Pacific island countries do not, generally, have the
systems or physical capacity to isolate and dispose of toxic
wastes such as pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), waste oil and heavy metals. Some countries, such
as Papua New Guinea and the Marshall Islands, have
developed the recycling of waste oil, which is cleaned and
reblended with fuel. A local private enterprise in Samoa has
also established a recycling system for oil obtained from
local garages. At the regional level, hazardous waste
management issues are addressed in the Waigani
Convention to Ban the Importation into Island Countries
of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the
Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes in the
South Pacific Region, which has yet to be ratified by a
number of countries.
15. The Waigani Convention was developed over a period
of two years and approved at a South Pacific Forum
meeting in September 1995 at Waigani. Three countries
have ratified the Convention; 10 countries must ratify it for
the Convention to go into force. Regarding the control of
imported chemicals, an Australia-funded project being
developed by SPREP will identify chemical profiles for a
number of small island developing States in the Pacific. The
project is spearheaded by the United Nations Institute for
Training and Research, and has arranged with Environment
Australia to assess the ability to manage chemicals,
including importation, use and disposal, in eight countries.
Papua New Guinea is developing pollutant release and
transfer registers that can improve the management of
chemicals. In the Marshall Islands, the United States of
America has assisted with the removal and disposal of
PCB-contaminated oil.
16. In waste reduction and recycling, there have been
limited actions in the Pacific. Some countries, such as
Tonga and Kiribati, have tried to promote can recycling,
but these efforts have been unsuccessful due to the lack of
public awareness and proper strategies and on account of
the economic unviability of the operations. Fiji and Niue
are notable exceptions. The former has an active
programme in place for recycling paper, metal and plastics,
the latter a well organized system of aluminum can
recycling. Although the principles and benefits of
composting are well known, and some research has been
carried out, comprehensive programmes are lacking.
Currently, one research project is being carried out in
Kiribati by the Foundation for the Peoples for the South
Pacific. Composting is particularly valuable in the Pacific
since regional soils are often low in organic matter and
deficient in certain essential nutrients.
17. There are no completely sanitary landfills in the
Pacific small island developing States, although a few can
be described as basic sanitary landfills. Some countries are
planning the improvement of existing landfill sites or
construction of new ones but are constrained in promoting
them due to the lack of finance, technical difficulties and
lack of suitable land. Incineration, mainly of medical waste
and combustible hazardous materials, has been practised
widely in the region, but, it has not generally been efficient
because of poor maintenance of plants, manpower shortage
and improper choice of facilities.
18. Several countries in the region, such as Samoa and the
Federated States of Micronesia, have environmental
regulations covering waste management. In some countries,
such as the Federated States of Micronesia, waste and
coastal management are integrated. Many Pacific island
countries have developed strategic plans for the sustainable
management of solid and liquid wastes in affected areas,
but there are no comprehensive plans or strategies, and
implementation leaves much to be desired. Economic
incentives to reduce particular types of waste are being used
by some Pacific island countries. For example, Samoa has
put in place a deposit-refund system for beer and soft drink
bottles, and the Federated States of Micronesia has a
deposit refund system for cans.
19. Non-governmental organizations in the Pacific are
playing a major role in waste management as part of their
environmental agenda, particularly in community
education, through workshops and practical demonstrations.
Greenline Group in Australia made an effort to address
problems found at the dump sites through field visits and
communication with stakeholders, including officials,
non-governmental organizations and community leaders. This
has produced a series of activities, such as monitoring
pollution of natural resources and collection of health data.
The European Union recently approved a Pacific regional
waste awareness and education programme, which will be
carried out over the next two years in eight countries and
is expected to encourage the theme of waste minimization.
2. Progress in the Caribbean
20. All Caribbean island countries share the problem of
environmental pollution caused by solid and liquid waste.
Since the Global Conference, some initiatives to arrest the
continuous deterioration in environmental quality resulting
from deficiencies in the waste treatment system, such as the
improvement of disposal facilities and management
frameworks, have been taken at the national and regional
levels. But the safe handling and disposal of wastes still
presents a challenge to Governments in this region due to
lack of technical manpower, qualified managers and
finance. Most existing dump sites are not managed properly
and pose a threat to human health. Recycling and
composting practices are seldom reported. Under the
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) solid
waste management programme, seven new sanitary landfills
will be constructed and six existing ones upgraded, while
22 that are deemed unsuitable for continuous use are
scheduled for closure.
21. As a part of the project entitled "Assistance to
developing countries in implementing the Basel Convention
and in preparing national hazardous wastes management
plan", funded by the European Commission, the secretariat
of the Basel Convention has undertaken expert missions to
Barbados, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint
Kitts and Nevis and Saint Lucia to assist small island
developing States in the Caribbean to strengthen their
capabilities to manage hazardous wastes. The project has
attempted to determine the requirements for addressing
critical issues concerning hazardous wastes, the response
capabilities of countries in the region and actions to be
taken. The project is also designed to establish regular links
with the States of the region that are not yet parties to the
Basel Convention.
22. Many small island developing States in the Caribbean
have yet to ratify the International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) and
the Basel Convention. Regarding hazardous waste
management, some countries have developed the necessary
legal frameworks and guidelines. Barbados has
commissioned a chemical substances technical working
group on the management of hazardous substances. It is
currently addressing issues of legislation and safety
guidelines to cover the importation, transportation, storage
and disposal of toxic chemicals and their wastes. The
Bahamas have made provision for regulations concerning
toxic waste under the Environmental Health Act, and
specific guidelines are being prepared. In Barbados, a
programme of action was developed in 1996 to meet needs
related to the disposal of hazardous waste; it emphasizes
training and the establishment of a technology transfer
centre and a regional mechanism for monitoring ships that
transport hazardous wastes.
23. Several countries, such as Barbados, the Bahamas and
Jamaica, have been able to secure external donor support
for improvement of waste management infrastructure,
including the development of legal and regulatory
frameworks, the strengthening of institutional capabilities,
and the construction and maintenance of sewage systems
to serve small cities. Legislation relevant to waste
management in the region can be found in a number of
different laws and ordinances administrated by various
government sectors. Since 1994, some island countries,
such as Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia and Dominica,
have developed separate legislation related to solid waste
management. A more comprehensive approach to waste
management is being attempted by some small island
developing States, though this is still at an early stage; for
example, Barbados has been executing an integrated solid
waste management programme, and has commenced
construction work on a sewerage project.
24. OECS, with funding from the World Bank, the
Caribbean Development Bank, the European Investment
Bank, the European Union and the Global Environmental
Facility (GEF), has embarked on a solid waste management
project to address the problems of managing ship-generated
and shore-generated waste in Antigua and Barbuda, the
Commonwealth of Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and
Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
The project's objectives are to improve the effectiveness
of solid waste collection and disposal facilities, reduce
water pollution caused by ship-generated solid waste, assist
in the preparation of plans to address the problems of liquid
waste treatment, and identify regional opportunities for the
minimization and recycling of solid waste.
25. Regarding environmental monitoring, some countries
have agreed to a proposal of the Caribbean Environmental
Health Institute to conduct monitoring of the critical
environmental parameters associated with the operation of
landfills. It is expected that routine monitoring will identify
pollution resulting from waste handling and contribute to
the selection of appropriate measures to protect them. Since
there is no effective regional coordinating mechanism in
place in the Caribbean regarding waste management, some
projects that have been implemented at a regional level
cannot be further developed.
3. Progress in other regions
26. Small island developing States in other regions have
similar problems related to solid and liquid waste
management. Sustainable and effective frameworks on
waste management are lacking, although many initiatives
are under way, particularly in the area of legislation. The
present section of the report is limited by the lack of
information, and serves only to outline a few activities
related to sound waste management strategies.
27. In Seychelles, the Environmental Protection Act,
which includes waste management and control of toxic and
hazardous substances, was enacted in 1994. It aims to
provide a comprehensive mechanism for pollution
protection and the improvement of waste handling
practices. In 1995, related regulations giving more detailed
guidance were approved. Under a national environmental
investment programme, Mauritius launched a sewage
master plan study with the objective of identifying
programmes to provide a long-term solution for the safe
disposal of liquid waste. Mauritius has a well developed
sanitary landfill and a plastic recycling factory. New
initiatives for the promotion of waste reduction have been
implemented, such as reusing bottles through a
deposit-refund system. Other small island developing States
in the Indian Ocean are exploring the possibility of sending
their used plastics to Mauritius for recycling.
B. International efforts aimed at assisting
small island developing States in coping
with the problem
28. Many United Nations organizations and agencies have
programmes that contribute directly or indirectly to the
sustainable management of waste in small island
developing States. A brief summary of some technical
cooperation programmes that have a particular impact on
waste management in small island developing States is
provided below.
29. The Global Programme of Action for the Protection
of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities is
being launched by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), in cooperation with regional bodies
and other United Nations agencies. Its objectives include
protection from pollution caused by sewage, heavy metals,
radioactive substances, oils and litter. It is expected that the
Global Programme of Action will provide up-to-date
information on environmentally friendly technologies for
waste management, and will develop a regional strategic
programme to address land-based marine pollution,
particularly pollution arising from solid and liquid wastes.
30. Several workshops and seminars have been held at the
regional level for information exchange and
capacity-building on waste management. UNEP and
SPREP, in collaboration with Environment Australia, held
a regional workshop on waste management in the Pacific
in May 1997, aiming at improving government officials'
capabilities and promoting information exchange on sound
practices. A similar workshop was held in Mauritius by
UNEP and the Indian Ocean Commission in December
1997. UNEP provided legal expertise to a regional
workshop held at Apia, Samoa, in December 1996 on
marine pollution and waste management in the South
Pacific. A regional seminar on environmentally sound
management of hazardous wastes in the Caribbean was
convened in Saint Lucia in October 1996. The seminar,
funded by the European Community, was co-hosted by the
Government of Saint Lucia and the secretariat of the Basel
Convention, to provide countries of the Caribbean with a
forum for their concerns with regard to the implementation
of the Basel Convention.
31. UNEP has been providing assistance to small island
developing States in strengthening environmental
legislation, including waste management, through the
drafting of legal frameworks. For example, the
Governments of Kiribati, Samoa and Sao Tome and
Principe are being assisted in drafting a framework
environmental law, including provisions on waste
management. Under a UNEP/United Nations Development
Programme joint project on environmental law and
institutions in Africa, Sao Tome and Principe is being
assisted in carrying out a study on urban waste
management. In terms of capacity-building in the field of
legislation, lawyers from such small island developing
States as Barbados, Cape Verde, Cuba, Dominican
Republic, Fiji, Jamaica, Kiribati, Maldives, Mauritius,
Seychelles, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sao Tome and Principe,
and Samoa, have been trained in various aspects of
environmental law, including management of hazardous
wastes.
32. The International Maritime Organization, in
cooperation with GEF, is assisting 22 countries in the
Caribbean region to overcome the legal and technical
obstacles that hinder the appropriate implementation of
MARPOL 73/78. The project is focused on the assessment
of existing systems, the development of criteria for port
waste reception facilities and the development of integrated
waste management options. This project was conceived as
the first phase of a long-term process of comprehensively
cleaning up and protecting the Caribbean sea. A draft code
of conduct for pollution prevention from small ships in
marinas and anchorages in the Caribbean was endorsed by
countries at a forum in November 1996 in Trinidad and
Tobago. It prescribes best practice guidelines for
administrators, facility operators and users.
33. The World Health Organization (WHO) has assisted
in developing national implementation plans on waste
management and promoting sound practices. For example,
WHO supported Maldives in preparing a report that
reviewed the organizational, procedural and financial
aspects of solid waste management and provided a
consultation on hospital waste treatment. It assisted the
Federated States of Micronesia and Niue with the storage
of pesticides, pending their removal and destruction, and
Trinidad and Tobago and Saint Lucia with the training of
package plant operators in 1997. It also sponsored an
international conference on waste management in Grenada
in October 1997.
IV. Recommendations for future action
at the national, regional and
international levels
34. Further efforts are needed at all levels to implement
the actions, policies and measures identified in the
Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of
Small Island Developing States. Higher priority should be
given to the economic and financial aspects of waste
management. Revenue-generating policies for improving
the financing of waste-management facilities should be
seriously considered by regional and local Governments in
small island developing States. Specific priority actions that
could give effect to the objectives of the Programme of
Action at the national and regional levels could include:
(a) Improving landfill management, including the
selection of optimal technologies and financial
mechanisms, such as landfill charges and other levies. The
management plan should also encompass operational
requirements, with appropriate guidelines/standards,
including capacity-building, regular monitoring and
measures to be taken in the closure of landfills;
(b) Separating industrial wastes, particularly
hazardous wastes, from domestic waste and properly
disposing of them. Inventories of industrial waste,
pollutants and hazardous waste, and codes of practice need
to be introduced for environmentally sound industrial
operations in small island developing States, modified, as
appropriate, for local use, in close cooperation with
regional and international bodies;
(c) Securing suitable long-term storage facilities for
hazardous waste and identifying suitable final disposal
options;
(d) Improving the efficiency of septic tank systems,
where they have been introduced. Sound practices leading
to the incorporation of septic sludge into local agricultural
and forestry operations should be developed and
disseminated;
(e) Making environmental impact assessments
mandatory for all projects related to waste disposal.
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