| United Nations |
|
E/CN.17/1996/20/Add.2 |
Economic and Social Council
Distr. GENERAL
29 February 1996
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Fourth session
18 April-3 May 1996
PROGRESS IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROGRAMME
OF ACTION FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF
SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES
Report of the Secretary-General
Addendum
Sustainable development of energy resources
in small island developing States
SUMMARY
In small island developing States, imported petroleum is the chief source
of primary commercial energy. Their total daily petroleum consumption,
however, is only about 1.3 per cent of total world consumption. Per capita
energy consumption in small island developing States varies widely, from
levels exceeding that in industrialized nations to as low as that in least
developed countries, making it difficult to make many meaningful
generalizations in consumption patterns and trends in small island developing
States as a whole. Considering the dependence on imported energy supplies,
small island developing States need to remain focused on improving the
management and regulation of conventional power supply and petroleum imports.
Most small island developing States remain heavily dependent on
traditional forms of energy such as fuelwood and bagasse, particularly in
rural and remote areas. Attempts to develop renewable energy technologies,
mostly small-scale, stand-alone units in dispersed settings, have had limited
success. Solar energy has found use with solar photovoltaic systems for
electrification of remote areas, and solar water heating is used in homes,
hotels and commercial establishments. In further developing renewable energy
sources, emphasis should be on the options that have shown some promise:
solar photovoltaic systems in remote islands, solar water heating in urban
areas and hydropower.
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
EXPLANATORY NOTES ...................................... 3
INTRODUCTION ............................................1 - 3 4
I. PRIMARY ENERGY RESOURCES ......................4 - 7 4
II. NEW AND RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY ...........8 - 11 8
III. ENERGY DEMAND ............................... 12 - 18 8
IV. ENERGY RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ..............................19 - 28 17
Tables
1. Small island developing States - resources, primary energy
consumption and production ....................................... 6
2. Total and per capita primary energy consumption, 1982-1992 .......10
3. Share of petroleum imports in total merchandise imports and
exports, and in electricity generation, 1992 ............ 12
4. Net installed capacity of electric-generating plants and
per capita consumption of electricity, 1982-1992 ................ 15
5. Characteristics of technologies for production of electricity ....18
EXPLANATORY NOTES
The following abbreviations and symbols have been used:
b/d barrels per day
EEZ exclusive economic zone
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
GEF Global Environment Facility
GNP gross national product
ha hectare
kgoe kilogram of oil equivalent
km kilometre
km2 square kilometre
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt-hour
kWp kilowatt-peak
m metre
m3 cubic metre
MW megawatt
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
t metric ton
toe metric ton of oil equivalent
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
US$ United States dollars
% per cent
-- not available
... nil
INTRODUCTION
1. Limited or scarce indigenous commercial energy resources and
difficulties in securing energy supplies exacerbate the many constraints in
economic and social development of small island developing States.
2. Imported petroleum is the chief source of primary commercial
energy; indeed with the exception of hydropower in less than a third of the
small island developing States, it is the only source of primary commercial
energy in these States and territories. However, at the global level,
small island developing States and territories are not significant
consumers of petroleum. Their total consumption of petroleum is estimated
at about 880,000 b/d out of a daily world consumption of more than 66
million b/d.
3. The cost, source and usage of energy have become major concerns
for small island States, prompting a great need for careful energy
planning. Energy management in small island developing States will
essentially include increasing efficiency of energy use as well as an
examination of indigenous energy resources. Environmental impacts are also
of great importance and must be taken into careful consideration if the
integrity of the food and fuel resource base are to be maintained and the
natural endowments of the islands are to be preserved.
I. PRIMARY ENERGY RESOURCES
4. Petroleum is the chief source of primary commercial energy. It
is produced in Bahrain, Barbados, Cuba, Papua New Guinea and Trinidad and
Tobago. Petroleum export is an important source of revenue for Papua New
Guinea, having exported about 120,000 b/d and Trinidad and Tobago, with an
export of more than 150,000 b/d, in 1994. Bahrain is a major producer of
natural gas, with an output of about 4.8 million tons of oil equivalent in
1992. 1/1/
5. Island arc basins in the Caribbean Sea and the south-western
Pacific have been investigated for their hydrocarbon potential. However,
since 1985, virtually all licensed acreage in the Caribbean Sea has been
surrendered, in Aruba, the Bahamas, Barbados and the Netherlands Antilles.
Elsewhere, in Seychelles, about 22,000 km2 is still under licence for
exploration, where marine seismic surveys of about 4,700 line-km were last
conducted in 1987/88, and in Maldives, where licensed acreage was
relinquished in 1991. In most of the island States and territories in the
south-western Pacific, only preliminary reconnaissance exploration
activities have been carried out. All licences in Fiji, Tonga and Vanuatu
have been relinquished since the mid-1980s. In Fiji, four exploratory
wells were drilled in 1982, but all tested dry with minor gas shows. 2/2/
6. As for coal resources, there are virtually no delineated coal
deposits in any of the small island developing States and territories.
7. Hydropower resources for primary electricity production in the
small island developing countries range from zero in the low countries
(e.g., Maldives, Niue and Tuvalu) to moderate (many island countries have
mini-hydro power capacity of a few megawatts), to extensive (e.g., Fiji,
Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, with capacity of a few hundred megawatts). As
shown in table 1, hydropower has been developed in 11 small island
developing States and territories, where it accounts for 4 to 13 per cent
of total commercial energy supply; Comoros, Mauritius and Sao Tome and
Principe in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and adjacent areas; Fiji, Palau
and Samoa in the Pacific; and Dominica and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
in the Caribbean Sea. Total annual hydroelectricity generation varies
widely in these countries, from a high of about 460 million kWh in Papua
New Guinea to about 2 million kWh in Comoros. The relative scarcity of
hydropower development in the island countries, while technically
successful, was in large part attributable to many financial and
institutional problems associated with their development and, not least,
environmental considerations.
Table 1. Small island developing States - resources, primary energy
consumption and production
Source: Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable
Development of the United Nations Secretariat, based on Energy Statistics
Yearbook, 1992 (United Nations publication, Sales No. 94.XVII.9); and
International Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics, various
issues.
a/ Included in United States EEZ.
b/ Bahrain's natural gas production in 1992 = 4,791,000 toe.
II. NEW AND RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
8. Of the new and renewable sources of energy, biomass accounts by
far for the major share in small island countries. Fuelwood is most
commonly used for cooking, especially in rural households. Almost all
fuelwood for cooking is obtained at no financial cost from natural forests.
Few island countries have any sizeable commercial production of fuelwood
and whatever is available in the market appears to be purchased by
relatively affluent households, for supply conveniences or for special
occasions; very few island countries have forest areas covering a
substantial part of their land area (see table 1). Also widely used are
coconut residues (shells, husks and stemwood) and residues from coffee,
cocoa and such other crops as maize, cassava, peanuts and rice. Biofuel is
also used in small-scale agro-industry for process heat for drying copra,
coffee, tea, fish and other foodstuffs.
9. In those island countries where sugar cane is grown in large
quantities, bagasse is used as fuel for sugar mills. Notably, in Fiji,
about 30 per cent of the peak electricity demand is produced from bagasse,
including electricity used in the sugar mills themselves. 3/3/
10. The principal uses of direct solar energy in the island countries
are for heating and drying, for solar water heating in urban houses as well
as commercial establishments and drying of crops for consumption or
processing, as well as for solar water purification and distillation on a
limited scale. Solar energy is also used for photovoltaic systems as
electric power sources in some rural areas and remote islands. Solar
photovoltaic systems have been used on many islands, mainly in dispersed
settings, for telecommunication transmission and reception, lighting, small
medical refrigerators and water pumping. The largest concentration of
photovoltaic modules (more than 8,000) is in the French Polynesian islands,
with a combined generating capacity of more than 280 kW (on average about
50 watts per unit, sufficient for an incandescent light-bulb). Also, in
Tuvalu, photovoltaic-based electricity is used for lighting needs in a
number of households in the outer islands and customer growth is limited
only by the availability of new photovoltaic units, constrained by lack of
capital and reliant on donors. Photovoltaic use is growing, owing in large
part to declining installation and operating costs.
11. Prospects have been improving for electricity generation by wind
turbines, but much depends on site availability. In the tropics, locations
with favourable wind regimes are scarce. However, several small island
developing States have favourable sites for wind energy, perhaps prone to
severe storm conditions; Cape Verde has a number of grid-connected wind
turbines in operation.
III. ENERGY DEMAND
12. Total energy consumption in the small island developing countries
under consideration has been gradually increasing during the period 1982-
1992, from about 7 million to about 8.4 million tons of oil equivalent, an
average annual increase of less than 2 per cent. However, not all of these
small island developing States experienced increases; total energy
consumption in a number of them declined; in fact, there were more declines
registered in per capita energy consumption as increasing demand from
expanding populations outpaced energy supply (see table 2).
13. In 1992, per capita energy consumption in these small island
developing States ranged widely from a low of less than 100 kilograms of
oil equivalent (kgoe) to more than 5,000 kgoe, averaging about 1,200 kgoe.
In comparison, worldwide, an average of about 600 kgoe was registered for
all developing countries and about 60 kgoe in the least developed
countries. Per capita energy consumption in more than 20 small island
developing States exceeds the average of developing countries as a whole,
but in a number of them consumption levels fall in the range of least
developed countries. In four of the island developing countries and
territories - Bahrain, Nauru, Netherlands Antilles and United States Virgin
Islands - per capita energy consumption exceeds the average of OECD
countries. Owing to the wide range in energy consumption among small
island developing States, it is difficult to make any generalizations in
consumption patterns and trends in these countries. However, as elsewhere,
increasing use of modern fuels and per capita GNP are closely linked.
14. Most small island developing States depend heavily on traditional
forms of energy such as fuelwood, charcoal and bagasse, particularly in
rural areas. Traditional fuels are estimated to account for more than
50 per cent of total energy in many small island developing States compared
to an average of about 25 per cent for all developing countries. As
mentioned earlier, of the indigenous energy sources, biomass accounts for
the largest share of the energy requirement, as it is used extensively for
cooking and as a fuel in a variety of small-scale agro-industries.
15. Imported oil, mainly end-use products, is the main source of
commercial energy, especially in small remote islands at great distances
away from mainland areas. In fact it is the only source of primary
commercial energy in about 28 small island developing States. However, to
put the daily petroleum consumption of small island developing States in
proper perspective, current daily demand is about 0.88 million b/d out of a
total world consumption of more than 66 million b/d, an amount of about
1.3 per cent of world petroleum demand. Most of the imported petroleum,
mainly products, are used for transportation and electricity generation.
The share of imported petroleum used for electricity generation varies
widely among small island developing States as seen in table 3, from about
70 to 100 per cent in the high range to less than 25 per cent in the low
end; on average, in small island developing States, more than a third of
the petroleum is converted to electricity.
16. Table 3 also shows that, in small island developing States, the
share of petroleum imports in total imports ranges from a low of about
3 per cent to more than 20 per cent. The ratio of petroleum imports to
total exports on average is comparatively higher than in other developing
countries: in a number of small island developing States, the value of
petroleum imports exceeds the value of total merchandise exports.
Table 2. Total and per capita primary energy consumption, 1982-1992
State or territory Total energy consumption
(thousand toe)
1982 1992 Annual
change
(percentage)
Atlantic Ocean
Cape Verde 34 36 0.5
Sao Tome and Principe 12 25 6.7
Indian Ocean and adjacent areas
Comoros 12 22 5.5
Maldives 6 33 15.6
Mauritius 170 448 8.8
Seychelles 28 50 5.3
Pacific Ocean
Cook Islands 12 7 -4.9
Fiji 256 253 -0.1
Kiribati 9 7 -2.3
Marshall Islands -- -- --
Micronesia, Federated States of -- --
Nauru 40 44 0.9
Niue 1 1 0.0
Northern Marianas -- -- --
Palau 50 82 4.5
Papua New Guinea 667 784 1.5
Samoa 39 45 1.3
Solomon Islands 41 53 2.3
Tokelau -- -- --
Tonga 14 30 6.9
Tuvalu -- --
Vanuatu 17 20 1.5
Caribbean Sea
Antigua and Barbuda 83 96 1.3
Aruba -- 213
Bahamas 828 602
-2.9
Barbados 210 328 4.1
Cuba 10 303 8 717
-1.5
Dominica 13 21 4.4
Dominican Republic 1 775 3 203 5.4
Grenada 20 40 6.3
Haiti 223 244 0.8
Jamaica 1 917 2 604 2.8
Netherlands Antilles 2 444 923 -8.8
Saint Kitts and Nevis 21 25 1.6
Saint Lucia 36 331
20.3
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 15
316.6
United States Virgin Islands 2 812 2 266
-2.0
Mediterranean Sea
Cyprus 831 1 446 5.0
Others
Bahrain 3 360 5 514 4.5
Singapore 10 496 16 482 4.1
Trinidad and Tobago 4 549 7 458 4.5
State or territory Per capita consumption
(kgoe)
1982 1992 Annual
change
(percentage)
Atlantic Ocean
Cape Verde 110 94 -1.4
Sao Tome and Principe 135 202 3.7
Indian Ocean and adjacent areas
Comoros 29 38 2.5
Maldives 37 145 12.5
Mauritius 171 408 7.9
Seychelles 406 694 4.9
Pacific Ocean
Cook Islands 632 412 -3.9
Fiji 393 342 -1.3
Kiribati 150 95 -4.1
Marshall Islands -- --
Micronesia, Federated States of
Nauru 5 714 4 400 -2.4
Niue 250 500 6.3
Northern Marianas -- --
--
Palau 352 369 0.4
Papua New Guinea 195 193 -0.1
Samoa 244 285 1.4
Solomon Islands 165 155 -0.6
Tokelau --
Tonga 139 309 7.3
Tuvalu -- --
Vanuatu 134 127 -0.5
Caribbean Sea
Antigua and Barbuda 1 078 1 455 2.7
Aruba -- 3 435
Bahamas 3 851 2 280 -4.8
Barbados 814 1 266 4.0
Cuba 1 046 806 -2.4
Dominica 173 292 4.8
Dominican Republic 305 429 3.1
Grenada 183 440 8.0
Haiti 37 36 -0.2
Jamaica 861 1 055 1.8
Netherlands Antilles 9 660 5 274 -5.5
Saint Kitts and Nevis 467 595 2.2
Saint Lucia 293 2 416
19.3
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines 149 284 5.9
United States Virgin
Islands 28 120 21 178 -2.6
Mediterranean Sea
Cyprus 1 292 2 020 4.1
Others
Bahrain 8 842 10 345 1.4
Singapore 4 239 5 952 3.1
Trinidad and Tobago 4 208 5 896 3.1
Source: Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable
Development of the United Nations Secretariat, based on Energy Statistics
Yearbook, 1984 and 1992 (United Nations publications, Sales Nos. 86.XVII.2
and 94.XVII.9).
Table 3. Share of petroleum imports in total merchandise
imports and exports, and in electricity generation, 1992
State or territory Petroleum Value Total
import of merchandise
(in petroleum import
thousand import (value
toe) (in in
million million
US dollars) US dollars)
(estimated)
Atlantic Ocean
Cape Verde 36 5.26 180.00
St. Pierre and Miquelon 32 4.67--
Sao Tome and Principe 25 3.65--
Indian Ocean and adjacent
areas
Comoros 22 3.21 --
Maldives 33 4.82 189.00
Mauritius 448 65.41 1 623.00
Seychelles 50 7.30 192.00
Pacific Ocean
Cook Islands 7 1.02 --
Fiji 253 36.94 624.00
Kiribati 7 1.02 37.00
Marshall Islands -- -- --
Micronesia, Federated
States of -- -- --
Nauru 44 6.42 --
Niue 1 0.15 --
Palau 82 11.97 --
Papua New Guinea -- -- 1 523.00
Samoa 45 6.57 113.00
Solomon Islands 53 7.74 --
Tokelau -- 0.00 --
Tonga 30 4.38 63.00
Tuvalu -- -- --
Vanuatu 20 2.92 83.00
Caribbean Sea
Antigua and Barbuda 96 14.02 --
Aruba 213 31.10 --
Bahamas 602 87.89 --
Barbados 328 47.89 471.00
Cuba -- -- 3 690.00
Dominica 21 3.07 111.00
Grenada 40 5.84 117.00
Jamaica 2 604 380.18 1 672.00
Netherlands
Antilles 923 134.76 2 174.00
Saint Kitts and Nevis 25 3.65 --
Saint Lucia 331 48.33 313.00
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines 31 4.53 --
United States Virgin
Islands 2 266 330.84 --
Mediterranean Sea
Cyprus 1 446 211.12 3 289.00
Others
Bahrain -- -- 4 125.00
Singapore 16 482 2 406.37 72 534.00
Trinidad and Tobago -- -- 1 431.00
State or territory Oil Total Oil
import merchandise import
as export as
percentage (value percentage
of in of
total million total exports
imports US dollars)
Atlantic Ocean
Cape Verde 2.63 5.00 105.12
St. Pierre and Miquelon -- -- --
Sao Tome and Principe -- -- --
Indian Ocean and adjacent areas
Comoros -- -- --
Maldives 2.29 40.00 12.05
Mauritius 3.63 1 290.00 5.07
Seychelles 3.42 44.00 16.59
Pacific Ocean
Cook Islands -- -- --
Fiji 5.33 435.00 8.49
Kiribati 2.49 5.00 20.44
Marshall Islands -- -- --
Micronesia, Federated
States of -- -- --
Nauru -- -- --
Niue -- -- --
Palau -- -- --
Papua New Guinea -- 1 790.00 --
Samoa 5.23 6.00 109.50
Solomon Islands -- -- --
Tokelau -- -- --
Tonga 6.26 12.00 36.50
Tuvalu -- -- --
Vanuatu 3.17 20.00 14.60
Caribbean Sea
Antigua and Barbuda -- -- --
Aruba -- -- --
Bahamas -- -- --
Barbados 9.15 190.00 25.20
Cuba -- 3 585.00 --
Dominica 2.49 56.00 5.48
Grenada 4.49 23.00 25.39
Jamaica 20.46 1 047.00 36.31
Netherlands
Antilles 5.58 1 114.00 12.10
Saint Kitts and Nevis -- -- --
Saint Lucia 13.90 123.00 39.29
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines -- -- --
United States Virgin
Islands -- -- --
Mediterranean Sea
Cyprus 5.78 1 002.00 21.07
Others
Bahrain -- 3 368.00 --
Singapore 2.99 63 516.00 3.79
Trinidad and Tobago -- 1 869.00 --
State or territory Petroleum Electricity Share
import - production of
approximate by petroleum
calorific thermal import
equivalent plants used
(in (in in
million million electricity
kWh) a/ kWh) b/ generation
(percentage)
Atlantic Ocean
Cape Verde 144 37 25.7
St. Pierre and Miquelon 128 4938.3
Sao Tome and Principe 100 77.0
Indian Ocean and adjacent areas
Comoros 88 14 15.9
Maldives 132 30 22.7
Mauritius 1 792 812 45.3
Seychelles 200 109 54.5
Pacific Ocean
Cook Islands 28 16 57.1
Fiji 1 012 87 8.6
Kiribati 28 7 25.0
Marshall Islands -- -- --
Micronesia, Federated
States of -- -- --
Nauru 176 30 17.0
Niue 4 3 75.0
Palau 328 -- --
Papua New Guinea 0 1 330 --
Samoa 180 28 15.6
Solomon Islands 212 30 14.2
Tokelau -- -- --
Tonga 120 27 22.5
Tuvalu -- -- --
Vanuatu 80 29 36.3
Caribbean Sea
Antigua and Barbuda 384 95 24.7
Aruba 852 350 41.1
Bahamas 2 408 975 40.5
Barbados 1 312 537 40.9
Cuba -- 12 410 --
Dominica 84 15 17.9
Grenada 160 62 38.8
Jamaica 10 416 2 605 25.0
Netherlands Antilles 3 692 853 23.1
Saint Kitts and Nevis 100 40 40.0
Saint Lucia 1 324 107 8.1
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines 124 12 9.7
United States Virgin
Islands 9 064 1 020 11.3
Mediterranean Sea
Cyprus 5 784 2 404 41.6
Others
Bahrain -- 3 510 --
Singapore 65 928 17 543 26.6
Trinidad and Tobago 0 3 945 --
Source: Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable
Development of the United Nations Secretariat, based on Energy Statistics
Yearbook, 1992 (United Nations publication, Sales No. 94.XVII.9) and
Statistical Yearbook, No. 39 (United Nations publication, Sales
No. 94.XVII.1).
a/ One million metric tons of oil produces about 4x109 kWh of
electricity in a modern power station.
b/ It is assumed that thermal electricity generation in small island
developing States, as tabulated in Energy Statistics Yearbook, 1992, is by
oil-fired or diesel-based generating plants. However, for all practical
purposes, petroleum-based products provided the bulk of primary energy in
almost all small island developing States.
17. In absolute terms, the use of new and renewable sources of energy is
increasing, accounting for a substantial part of rural energy demand in
many small island developing States, although their share of total energy
supply remains at a level significantly below their potential. Most
islands have abundant solar and ocean resources and considerable wind and
hydropower potential, as well as geothermal resources in a number of them.
Given the remote location of many small island developing States, their
small energy demands and high costs of oil imports, the development of
renewable energy sources seems ideal. However, in spite of efforts to
develop indigenous energy resources, using a variety of pilot projects,
including biogas from animal dung, biomass gasifiers, alcohol fuel, small-
scale wind systems and solar photovoltaics, the overall contribution of
renewable energy sources to the energy balance of most small island
developing States has been disappointing. At present, only small-scale
hydropower, fuelwood and charcoal contribute significantly to the overall
energy needs of small island developing States, particularly in rural areas
and remote islands. More recently, the use of solar energy in the Pacific
islands has been increasing. Following a number of demonstration projects
in the early 1980s, solar water heating is being increasingly used
throughout the Pacific islands in upper-income homes, hotels and commercial
establishments. 4/4/ Solar photovoltaic systems have also been used as an
alternative to diesel generation for the electrification of remote areas.
18. As in most other developing countries, electricity in small island
developing States is available mainly in cities and surrounding rural
areas, and in most of these countries electricity is generated from
diesel-based systems, since that is the most economical option for power
generation in remote areas. However, it is very costly because most
generation systems are on a small-scale to very small-scale basis. In most
Pacific islands, for example, the cost of electricity generation using
diesel-based utilities with capacities of 5 to 20 MW is more than US$ 0.20
per kilowatt-hour. By comparison, electricity generation costs in
industrialized countries average $0.10 to $0.15 per kilowatt-hour. As can
be seen in table 4, in 1992, total net installed capacity of electricity-
generating plants in small island developing States and territories was
about 3,500 MW, with individual country capacities ranging from more than
400 MW in the Bahamas to 5 MW and less in a number of these countries. Per
capita electricity consumption has been increasing substantially in most
small island developing States and territories, more than doubling during
the period 1982-1992. However, in a number of these countries, negative
growth rates were registered. The average per capita electricity
consumption in the OECD countries of more than 8,000 kWh far exceeds that
of the small island developing States.
Table 4. Net installed capacity of electric-generating plants
and per capita consumption of electricity, 1982-1992
State or territory Net installed capacity of electric-
generating plants (thousand kW)
1982 1992 Average annual
change
(percentage)
Atlantic Ocean
Cape Verde 3 7 7.7
Sao Tome and
Principe 5 6 1.7
Indian Ocean and adjacent areas
Comoros 4 5 2.0
Maldives 2 14 17.8
Mauritius 243 336 2.9
Seychelles 19 28 3.5
Pacific Ocean
Cook Islands 6 6 0.0
Fiji 113 200 5.2
Kiribati 2 2 0.0
Marshall Islands -- --
Micronesia, Federated States of
--
--
Nauru 10 10 0.0
Niue 1 1 0.0
Palau 48 62 2.3
Papua New Guinea 434 490 1.1
Samoa 17 19 1.0
Solomon Islands 12 12 0.0
Tokelau -- --
Tonga 6 7 1.4
Tuvalu -- --
Vanuatu 10 11 0.9
Caribbean Sea
Antigua and Barbuda 26 26 0.0
Aruba -- 90
Bahamas 312 401 2.3
Barbados 94 140 3.6
Cuba 2 975 3 988 2.7
Dominica 7 8 1.2
Dominican Republic 960 1 447 3.7
Grenada 8 9 1.1
Haiti 126 153 1.8
Jamaica 740 732 -0.1
Netherlands
Antilles 390 200 -6.1
Saint Kitts and
Nevis 15 15 0.0
Saint Lucia 16 22 2.9
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines 10 143.1
United States Virgin
Islands 341 316 -0.7
Mediterranean Sea
Cyprus 333 546 4.5
Others
Bahrain 588 1 050 5.3
Singapore 2 106 3 550 4.8
Trinidad and Tobago 760 1 150 3.8
State or territory Per capita consumption of electricity
(kWh)
1982 1992 Average annual
change
(percentage)
Atlantic Ocean
Cape Verde 58 96 4.6
Sao Tome and Principe 124 126 0.1
Indian Ocean and adjacent areas
Comoros 24 27 1.1
Maldives 49 132 9.0
Mauritius 432 842 6.1
Seychelles 768 1 514 6.2
Pacific Ocean
Cook Islands 526 941 5.3
Fiji 497 645 2.4
Kiribati 100 95 -0.5
Marshall Islands -- --
Micronesia, Federated States of
--
--
Nauru 3 714 3 000 -1.9
Niue 750 1 500 6.3
Palau 1 021 914 -1.0
Papua New Guinea 382 441 1.3
Samoa 275 304 0.9
Solomon Islands 100 88 -1.2
Tokelau -- --
Tonga 119 278 7.7
Tuvalu -- --
Vanuatu 165 185 1.0
Caribbean Sea
Antigua and Barbuda 857 1 439 4.7
Aruba -- 5 645
Bahamas 3 786 3 693 -0.2
Barbados 1 341 2 073 4.0
Cuba 1 124 1 155 0.2
Dominica 147 431 9.8
Dominican Republic 551 713 2.3
Grenada 229 681 9.9
Haiti 59 70 1.6
Jamaica 1 011 1 108 0.8
Netherlands Antilles 9 130 4 874 -5.7
Saint Kitts and Nevis 778 952 1.8
Saint Lucia 496 781 4.1
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines 297 468 4.1
United States Virgin
Islands 8 550 9 533 1.0
Mediterranean Sea
Cyprus 1 779 3 358 5.8
Others
Bahrain 5 287 6 585 2.0
Singapore 3 153 6 336 6.4
Trinidad and Tobago 2 482 3 119 2.1
Source: Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development
of the United Nations Secretariat, based on Energy Statistics Yearbook,
1984 and 1992 (United Nations publications, Sales Nos. 86.XVII.2 and
94.XVII.9).
IV. ENERGY RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
19. The modern economic sector of small island developing States depends
almost entirely on imported petroleum products for energy, accounting for
well over 90 per cent of the commercial energy used. The lack of
indigenous fossil fuels in virtually all of these countries and the total
reliance on a single imported energy source have caused severe balance-of-
payment problems in their economies (see table 3 for the ratio of value of
petroleum imports and value of total merchandise exports).
20. During the 1980s, expectations were high for the development of
indigenous renewable energy resources. It was widely believed then that
renewable energy technologies were becoming technically and economically
viable and that the energy environment of islands was ideal for these
technologies, given the remote locations, high cost of petroleum imports
and abundant supplies of indigenous solar, biomass, hydropower, wind and
ocean resources. In spite of concerted efforts to develop the indigenous
renewable energy resources through a wide range of demonstration and
investment projects using a variety of technologies, renewable energy
sources have not yet made a significant contribution to the energy balance
of the small island developing economies. However, the development of
hydropower in a number of island countries has been relatively successful,
as has been that of solar photovoltaics to a limited extent. None the
less, during that time, petroleum-product demand in small island developing
States increased steadily and the outlook is that the growth rate will
increase well into the next century.
21. Thus, the experiences of the 1980s indicate that the energy strategies
of small island developing economies may need to refocus on improving the
management and regulation of conventional power plants, at least until the
time when the energy supply mix in small island developing States becomes
more diversified with significant contributions from renewable energy
technologies. In the meantime, small island developing States will
continue to require assistance in the management and supply of conventional
power sources and petroleum products.
22. The development of indigenous new and renewable sources of energy
should be focused on the few options that have proved to hold promise for
technical, economic and financial viabilities in the setting of small
island developing economies. The renewable energy technologies and
resources that appear to be more promising in the near term are solar
photovoltaic-based utilities, particularly for remote islands; large-scale
and mini-hydropower plants, where adequate sites and institutional support
are available; wind turbine generators, depending on favourable wind
regimes; and the enhanced use of biomass fuel, where good sustainable
biomass cover exists. In the long term, ocean thermal and seawave may
prove to be substantial energy sources, although attempts at their
commercial development have not yet met with success. For a comparison
between technologies for production of electricity, characteristics of
these technologies are summarized in table 5.
Table 5. Characteristics of technologies for production of electricity
Technology Size/description Estimated Capacity
of system cost/KwH a/ factor
(US$) range b/
(percentage)
Wind Few to tens of
kW, not grid connected 0.50-1.00 10-30
Photovoltaic Several kW range,
not grid connected 1.00-2.00 15-25
Solar thermal
energy conversion Several kW to tens
of MW, stand alone
or grid connected 0.50-2.00 15-25
Hydropower Few MW and up, grid
connected 0.50-1.00 50-70
Ocean thermal
energy conversion-
shore based 5 MW
40 MW 0.50-1.00 70-90
Solar pond 5 MW salt gradient
excavating/
diking 0.50-1.00 70-90
Wood Few MW and up,
boiler, gasifier 0.15-0.25 c/ 70-90
Coal Few MW and up 0.10-0.25 c/ 70-90
Diesel Fractional to
several MW engine
generator 0.40-0.50 c/ 70-90
Residual oil Several tens of
MW boiler 0.25-0.30 c/ 70-90
Technology Area required Temporal
characteristics
Wind Little Intermittent, needs storage
Photovoltaic 20m2/kWp Intermittent, needs storage
Solar thermal
energy conversion 3-15 ha/MW Intermittent, needs storage
Hydropower As required Water availability dictates
limitations
Ocean thermal
energy conversion-
shore based Little Baseload power
Solar pond 20 ha/MW Baseload power with peaking
possibilities
Wood 800 ha/MW Baseload power
Coal 1 ha/MW Baseload power
Diesel Little Baseload power
Residual oil Little Baseload power
Source: Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable
Development of the United Nations Secretariat, based on various reports and
studies.
a/ Very rough estimates; actual costs can be expected to be
higher.
b/ Fraction of time source can produce energy, averaged over a
year
of operation.
c/ Environmental protection equipment will increase cost.
23. There are many and varied reasons for the disappointing results of
most renewable energy technologies promoted in the small island countries,
from a lack of detailed understanding of the economic and technical
viability of these technologies in the setting of small island developing
States, to insufficient efforts in organizing active participation of the
local community at the early planning stage. It is important that adequate
training in system operation and maintenance be provided on a long-term
basis and support for local organizations to plan, operate, maintain,
finance and expand the use of the technology be continued until a truly
sustainable basis is achieved.
24. Energy conservation and efficiency measures play a key role in any
energy management/planning process. Programmes designed for energy
conservation on both the supply and the demand sides are the most effective
ways to substantial savings in energy consumption. Energy conservation and
efficiency measures are all the more imperative given that the economic
development process has traditionally led to higher energy intensities per
unit of economic output in its early stages.
25. Increased use of fuelwood, a renewable energy source, has led to
much
deforestation. To enhance the forest cover for sustainable fuelwood
resources development, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) can play a
role in the protection of forests and reforestation with new and additional
grant and concessional financing, as these activities clearly relate to the
four focal areas of GEF, are country-driven and are national priorities to
support sustainable development. GEF financing could also contribute to
the transition from the pilot phase of those renewable energy technologies
with demonstrated viability, hydroelectricity, solar heating and
photovoltaics, to the longer term operational status.
26. It is apparent that small island developing economies will continue
to rely on imported petroleum products for their commercial energy
requirements and on biomass for non-commercial needs. In a number of
island countries, hydroelectricity has gained significantly in the
commercial energy mix, although new installations of scale are not foreseen
in the near term. On many of the islands, use of biomass as domestic fuel
and for process heat for drying agricultural products and foodstuff appears
to be sustainable; however, increased consumption and long-term
environmental impacts may need closer attention. For the petroleum
products import sector, the main issues are, on the economics side, the
need to monitor and analyse petroleum products transportation and
distribution costs, and on environment-related matters, for increased
surveillance of the integrity of offshore and onshore transportation of
petroleum products, storage safety standards and waste oil disposal.
27. Several factors constrain the market penetration of renewable energy
technologies in small island developing States: mainly, technology, as
local producers are not in a position to service a larger-scale demand, and
price constraints, as in the case of solar photovoltaic units, customer
growth for which is limited by lack of capital and in several cases
reliance on donors.
28. The development of electric power supply and most attempts to
develop
renewable energy sources in small island developing States were largely
funded by donor countries, on grant, concessional and, in a few cases,
near-commercial terms. Small island developing States will continue to
need such assistance to enable them to make the necessary investments to
expand energy services beyond urban areas.
Notes
1/ All energy statistics are based on Energy Statistics Yearbook, various
issues.
2/ World Petroleum Trends, various issues.
3/ Pacific Regional Energy Assessment, vol. 1, Overview, (World Bank, in
cooperation with the UNDP/ESCAP Pacific Energy Development Programme,
Asian Development Bank and the Forum Secretariat Energy Division, 1992).
4/ Ibid.
-----
This document has been posted online by the United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). Reproduction and dissemination of the
document - in electronic and/or printed format - is encouraged, provided acknowledgement
is made of the role of the United Nations in making it available.
Date last posted: 3 December 1999 10:25:35
Comments and suggestions: DESA/DSD
|