| United Nations |
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E/CN.17/1996/20/Add.3 |
Economic and Social Council
Distr. GENERAL
29 February 1996
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Fourth session
18 April-3 May 1996
PROGRESS IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES
Report of the Secretary-General
Addendum
Sustainable tourism development in small island
developing States
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 1 - 2 3
I. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PROGRESS ACHIEVED, MAIN POLICY
ISSUES, EXPERIENCE GAINED AND PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY
SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES IN TOURISM ............ 3 - 37 3
A. Economic impact .................................. 3 - 26 3
1. Overview of performance ...................... 3 - 14 3
2. Regional perspectives ........................ 15 - 18 7
3. Emerging trends .............................. 19 - 24 8
4. Risks of over-reliance on tourism ............ 25 - 26 9
B. Social and cultural impacts ...................... 27 - 30 10
C. Environmental impacts ............................ 31 - 37 11
Paragraphs
Page
1. Land resources and terrestrial biological
diversity .................................... 32 11
2. Waste management ............................. 33 - 34 11
3. Coastal area degradation ..................... 35 12
4. Freshwater resources ......................... 36 12
5. Climate change and sealevel rise ............. 37 12
II. MATTERS RELATED TO POLICIES, FINANCE, CAPACITY-
BUILDING, TECHNOLOGY AND INFRASTRUCTURE .............. 38 - 57 13
A. At the national level ............................ 39 - 49 13
1. Development policy framework ................. 39 13
2. Legislative framework ........................ 40 14
3. Investment ................................... 41 - 44 14
4. Human and institutional capacity ............. 45 15
5. Infrastructure ............................... 46 - 48 15
6. Technology ................................... 49 16
B. At the regional level ............................ 50 - 57 16
III. COUNTRY EXPERIENCES .................................. 58 - 64 18
IV. EXPERIENCES OF MAJOR GROUPS AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS: THEIR ROLE AND INVOLVEMENT IN THE
PROMOTION AND MAINTENANCE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
DEVELOPMENT IN SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES ........ 65 - 69 21
A. Private sector ................................... 65 - 67 21
B. Non-governmental organization and community
involvement ...................................... 68 - 69 21
V. ACTIVITIES AND EXPERIENCES IN INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATION IN SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ....... 70 - 72 22
A. Organs of the United Nations system .............. 70 - 71 22
B. Other intergovernmental bodies ................... 72 23
VI. MAIN FINDINGS ........................................ 73 - 75 24
INTRODUCTION
1. The Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States, in chapter VIII, acknowledges the important contribution of
tourism to the development of many small island developing States, while
noting that "if not properly planned and managed, tourism could significantly
degrade the environment on which it is so dependent". 1/ In this vein, it
espouses actions to be promoted at the national, regional and international
levels in order to ensure the viability of the sector and its harmonious
development with the cultural and natural endowments of small island
developing States.
2. The present report was prepared with the help of inputs from several
agencies and organizations with an interest or involvement in sustainable
tourism, and of relevant analytical reports and statistical data published by
various organizations within and outside the United Nations system. The first
part of the report presents an analysis of the main social, economic and
environmental impacts of tourism development on small island States, along
with a discussion of the emerging trends and principal risks involved in
over-reliance on the sector. The rest of the report highlights country
experiences, the role of major groups, including the private sector, some key
policy issues in sustainable tourism development, and experiences and
activities in international cooperation in promoting the goals and objectives
of sustainable tourism development in small island developing States. It
concludes with a brief summary of major findings. Recommendations for the
future course of tourism development in small island developing States are
contained in the report of the Secretary-General (E/CN.17/1996/20).
I. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF PROGRESS ACHIEVED, MAIN POLICY ISSUES,
EXPERIENCE GAINED AND PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY SMALL ISLAND
DEVELOPING STATES IN TOURISM
A. Economic impact
1. Overview of performance
3. Tourism is often identified as a promising growth sector in small island
developing States. It offers one of the few opportunities for economic
diversification in very small islands. Tourism has many linkages with other
economic sectors, and if integrated into national development plans with
adequate provisions for intersectoral linkages, it can contribute to the
growth of all tourism-related activities in all of the major economic sectors
- agriculture, including fishing, industry and services, including
transportation. At present, the extent of tourism activities in small island
developing States varies widely between geographical regions as well as
between countries within regions. Likewise, the economic benefits derived
from tourism are diverse. In some small island developing States, tourism has
become the major contributor to the gross domestic product (GDP), while in
others it is still relatively undeveloped.
4. It is well known that in small island developing States, the scope for
economic diversification and growth is limited. Their key constraints are
small land areas and small populations. The relatively larger ones have the
human resources potential to support a number of economic sectors viably and
thus to benefit from linkages of those sectors with the tourism sector. The
smaller ones, however, do not have such potential and will therefore have to
be more reliant on imports to meet the material demands of the tourism sector.
Other things remaining equal, the net benefits, i.e., domestic value-added per
visitor, derived by the smaller islands from tourism will be relatively
smaller.
5. The main objectives of the promotion of tourism as a growth sector are to
accelerate the growth of national incomes, gainful employment, foreign
exchange earnings and government tax revenues. A thorough evaluation of the
contribution of tourism in small island developing States with respect to
these parameters is at present hampered by the incompleteness of data. 2/ In
a sample of 29 small island developing States for which data are available,
gross direct receipts from tourism as a percentage of GDP ranged from a meagre
1 per cent to 88 percent on the average during the period 1989-1993, (see
annex table 1). 3/ In this sample of countries, tourism and tourism-related
activities have become the mainstay of the economy in Antigua and Barbuda,
Aruba, Barbados, Saint Lucia, the Bahamas, Saint Kitts and Nevis and
Seychelles, or mostly in the small island developing States in the Caribbean.
Important exceptions apart, tourism makes the least contribution to national
income in most of the African and Pacific small island developing States.
6. With a few exceptions, most small island developing States have realized
a fast, although diverse, pace of growth of gross tourism receipts in nominal
terms in recent years. During the period 1989-1993, in 24 out of 34 for which
data are available, the growth of gross receipts from tourism ranged from 2
per cent to 61 per cent per annum on the average (see annex table 1). 3/ In
most, it exceeded 10 per cent and in 9 it was 15 per cent or more. Generally,
but not universally, the fast pace of growth reflects low initial levels of
receipts from tourism. Even among those with low initial levels, several
countries did not do so well.
7. In view of the constraints faced by small island developing States in
promoting exports of goods in an increasingly competitive and fast-changing
international economy, by and large, these States are giving increasing
importance to tourism as a source of raising their foreign exchange earnings.
The available data show that during the period 1980-1992, for a sample of 26
small island developing States, the percentage increase in the ratio of
foreign exchange earnings from tourism to total export earnings ranged from 2
per cent to 453 per cent (see annex table 3). 3/ In 10 of them, it exceeded
50 per cent. In 1992, the contribution of tourism to total export earnings in
23 countries ranged from a meagre 2 per cent to 83 per cent; in 13 of them it
exceeded 25 per cent (see annex table 3). 3/
8. The data on average daily expenditures per visitor for 10 countries
ranged from US$ 41 to $304 in 1992. In 1989, average daily expenditures per
visitor for 23 small island developing States ranged from $37 to $226 (see
annex table 3). 3/ The diversity of performance even in these small samples
is significant. It suggests that those countries that want to promote tourism
as a growth sector need, in addition to adequate investments in tourism
infrastructure, to make greater efforts to enhance the diversity and quality
of goods and services they sell to visitors.
9. Countries that have relatively full employment are less interested in the
employment potential of expansion of tourism than those that have substantial
unemployment. The employment advantages of tourism are twofold: first, the
industry is labour-intensive, and secondly, much of the employment is
relatively unskilled. Consequently, investment in tourism produces a higher
and faster increase in employment than equal investment in other activities.
Tourism creates employment directly in the tourism industry as well as in
industries providing goods and services to the tourism industry. Data on
direct employment in the tourism industry is extremely scanty. It may be
inferred, however, that the impact of tourism on employment in small island
developing States, where tourism makes an important contribution to national
income, is considerable. In 15 Caribbean tourist destinations, a total of
77,319 hotel rooms accounted for 88,697 jobs, equivalent to 1.15 jobs per
room. 4/ With the recent decline in the agriculture sector, in particular
sugar and bananas, the relative share of tourism in employment has risen. In
the South Pacific, tourism generated 27,500 jobs in direct employment in 1991
in the 10 member countries of the Tourism Council of the South Pacific (TCSP),
with a population of about 5 million. Fiji accounted for 10,340 of this
amount. 5/
10. In the Mediterranean region, overall employment in Cyprus exhibited an
upward trend during the period 1980-1992, with the fastest growth occurring in
tourism and related services. Employment in these occupations doubled from
33,000 jobs in 1980 to 64,000 in 1992. Hotels, restaurants and retail trade
increased their share of employment from 17.9 per cent in 1980 to 24.3 per
cent in 1992. 6/ In 1993, the total contribution of tourism to employment in
Malta was roughly estimated at about 17 per cent of the labour force. In the
African region, the available data for Mauritius and Seychelles indicate that
during the period 1990-1994, the share of direct employment in tourism in
total employment rose from 3.4 per cent to 4.8 per cent in Mauritius and
remained stable at about 18 per cent in Seychelles. 7/
11. While the employment objective remains important for several small island
developing States, the level of wages in the tourism industry is also
important. The available information indicates that most jobs created in
tourism are low-paying. This is to be expected in countries with high rates
of unemployment, particularly of unskilled labour. The creation of low-paying
jobs in the tourism sector in countries with relatively high rates of
employment is the result of the strong pull factor of the relatively less
physically demanding jobs in the tourism sector from more arduous jobs in the
primary sector. This process exerts pressure on producers in the primary
sector to modernize and increase capital intensity so as to permit a rising
level of real wages; otherwise, the sector will lose its labour force and
dwindle. This could marginalize important productive activities such as
agriculture and fishing, and weaken the linkages of other sectors with tourism
reducing the benefits derived from the tourism industry.
12. Tourism is likely to play an even more important role in the growth and
development of small island developing States if appropriate measures are
taken to invigorate other sectors, in particular agriculture and fishing, so
that they can more adequately meet tourist demand for consumer goods from
domestic sources. Except for the very small ones, small island developing
States can, with careful planning and provision of adequate facilities such as
credit for mechanization, modernization and diversification, where necessary,
support viable agricultural and fishing activities, as well as light
manufacturing in addition to tourism. As intersectoral competition raises
wage rates and incomes and reduces labour supply to the tourism sector,
emphasis can be shifted to up-market tourism, with reliance on a slower rate
of growth but of higher-spending visitors.
13. In evaluating the direct contribution of tourism to national income,
gross levels of incomes or gross foreign exchange earnings are much less
significant than net earnings after deductions have been made for all
necessary foreign exchange expenditures of the tourism industry. The primary
leakages of foreign exchange earnings from direct tourist expenditures arise
from: (a) imports of materials and equipment for construction, (b) imports of
consumer goods, particularly food and drink, (c) repatriation of profits
earned by foreign investors, (d) overseas promotional expenditures and (e)
amortization of external debt incurred in the development of hotels and
resorts. The impact of these leakages varies greatly from country to country
depending on the ability of countries to produce the goods and services
necessary to meet the needs of the tourism industry. The estimates available
for 17 countries or territories presented below show that the higher leakages
pertain to small island economies.
Leakage of foreign exchange from gross tourism receipts
(Percentage)
1. Fiji 56
2. Cook Islands 50
3. Saint Lucia 45
4. Mauritius 43
5. Aruba 41
6. Hong Kong 41
7. Jamaica 40
8. United States Virgin Islands 36
9. Seychelles 30
10. Sri Lanka 27
11. Antigua and Barbuda 25
12. Cyprus 25
13. Kenya 22
14. Republic of Korea 20
15. New Zealand 12
16. Yugoslavia 11
17. Philippines 11
Source: Travel and Tourism Analyst No. 3 (London,
Economist Intelligence Unit, 1992).
14. Direct income from tourism provides only a partial picture of the
contribution of tourism to national income. A complete picture would call for
the estimation of tourism income multipliers in each small island developing
State. Since expenditures of tourists give rise to the generation of
additional incomes throughout the economy, the incomes and the associated
employment thus induced can be considerable. Aside from the savings
propensity of the local population, the size of the tourism income multiplier
in a particular small island developing State depends on the extent of
leakages of tourist expenditures overseas. The less the leakage of direct
tourist expenditures, the higher the tourism income multiplier. Because of
the complexities relating to the requisite data, however, the estimation of
tourism income multipliers is beyond the scope of the present report.
2. Regional perspectives
15. At the regional level, the development of the tourism industry is more
advanced in the Mediterranean and Caribbean small island developing States
than in those located in the Asia-Pacific and African regions. The two
Mediterranean small island developing States, Cyprus and Malta, have
experienced brisk expansion of tourism in the past, which is reflected by the
high share of tourism in their GDP and their total foreign exchange earnings.
In both of them, however, industry remains the dominant sector. The good
performance of tourism in these countries is explained in part by their
advantageous location in the vicinity of high-income European countries,
particularly the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, their
main source market.
16. In the Caribbean, with a larger number of small island developing States,
the pattern of economic performance has become closely linked to the
performance of the tourism industry. The direct contribution of tourism in
terms of its share in GDP and export earnings is high in most of them. In the
wider Caribbean, travel and tourism is the largest relative contributor to the
regional economy, at 31.5 per cent of GDP. 8/ While in some, the economic
base is relatively diversified, in the majority of them most other activities
have become increasingly linked to tourism, with agriculture and industry
lagging behind. This is particularly the case in the smaller islands which
have become essentially service economies. The development of tourism in the
Caribbean has been helped by considerable amounts of foreign investments and
the fact that they are located in the tropics but in proximity to high-income
North America.
17. The level of development of tourism and its contribution to economic
development is more uneven and generally much lower in small island developing
States of the Asia-Pacific region than in those in the Mediterranean and
Caribbean. In most of them, the level of general economic development is also
much lower. Six of them - Maldives, Samoa, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Kiribati, and
Solomon Islands - are actually classified as least developed. Tourism
activities are concentrated in only a few. The contribution of tourism to
national income is significant only in Fiji, Vanuatu, Samoa, Cook Islands and
Maldives. By and large, in small island developing States of this region,
agriculture and related activities predominate. Development of tourism in the
region has been slow because of low levels of development of physical
infrastructures and human resources in most of them, particularly the smaller
ones, isolation from the major sources of tourists, problems of communal
landownership, extremely weak aviation and communication links, and heavy
reliance on foreign investment, with foreign investors concentrating on the
most profitable destinations.
18. In the African region, considerable progress has been achieved in tourism
development in Seychelles and Mauritius. In the other three African small
island developing States, Sao Tome and Principe, Cape Verde and the Comoros,
all of which are classified as least developed, the development of tourism is
still in an incipient stage. The slow pace of development of tourism in these
countries is attributable to the slow pace of general economic development,
and of the development of social and physical infrastructures and human
resources in particular, as well as the inadequate importance attached to
tourism as a growth sector in the past.
3. Emerging trends
19. The future development of tourism in small island developing States will
be affected by two principal current global trends. First, global travel and
tourism is expected to grow more rapidly in the coming years, outpacing the
growth of world economic output. Between 1995 and 2005, travel and tourism is
projected to grow by an annual average rate of 5.5 per cent in real terms and
create 12.5 million new direct and indirect jobs annually on the average. 9/
20. In the wider Caribbean, travel and tourism output is projected to grow at
an annual average rate of 3.6 per cent in real terms between 1995 and 2005 and
to create 2.7 million jobs. 9/ For sustaining Caribbean tourism, the
secretariat of the Caribbean Tourism Organization has identified a number of
areas of action at the regional level, notably, maintenance of product
quality, including the integrity of the natural environment; enhancement of
profitability; provision of air access at competitive rates from major tourist
markets; provision of a secure environment for the industry by combating crime
and drugs; strengthening intersectoral linkages and creation of a regional
competitive force through regional collaboration, particularly in the area of
overseas marketing and promotion; and creation of social acceptability of the
further expansion of tourism by the local population.
21. A similar trend is expected for Asia and the Pacific. The region as a
whole is projected to be the fastest growing area in world tourism activities
up to the year 2005. Between 1995 and 2005, the annual average real rate of
growth of travel and tourism output in the region is estimated at 8.0 per
cent. 9/ The South Pacific is expected to share in this growth through
further growth of its traditional destinations, as well as through the gradual
development of as yet untapped potentials in other islands. In most of the
small island developing States of the South Pacific, the growth of tourism
will require the removal of several major internal constraints, including the
following: shortages of trained staff; inadequacy and infrequency of air
transportation; low level and quality of supporting infrastructure - airport
facilities, tour operation, restaurants; low budgets for marketing and
promotion; lack of investment capital; and restriction on landownership. By
far the greatest challenge for the expansion of tourism in the South Pacific
small island developing States will be their ability to achieve international
competitiveness.
22. In the African region, Mauritius and Seychelles have planned for further
growth but have opted for up-market tourism. They have consequently banned
charter flight operations and hope to achieve a slower rate of growth of
visitors, with emphasis on higher-spending visitors on scheduled flights. Of
particular concern to these countries is the spread of drugs and of diseases
such as the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(HIV/AIDS), which can impact very severely on their small populations. The
other three African small island developing States have considerable room for
growth and are just beginning to develop tourism as a growth sector.
23. In Malta and Cyprus, the rate of growth of tourist arrivals has slowed
down in the recent past. This is attributable in part to capacity constraints
and in part to deliberate policies to slow down expansion in order to deal
with environmental and other adverse impacts of previous rapid expansion.
Both countries plan to place considerable importance on tourism as a growth
sector for quite some time to come, but have opted for up-market tourism.
24. A second discernible trend that will shape tourism development in small
island developing States in coming years is the growing interest in and demand
for specialty tourism. Underlying this trend is greater environmental
awareness globally, greater health consciousness, and a growing preference by
travellers to experience unspoilt environmental surroundings. In tandem with
this trend, many small island developing States have embarked on a gradual
policy of diversification of the tourism package emphasizing to a greater
extent other natural assets than the beach and the sea. Diversification of
the tourism product also reflects the realization on the part of the
authorities in small island developing States of the need to innovate in order
to remain competitive.
4. Risks of over-reliance on tourism
25. Over-reliance on tourism, especially mass tourism, carries significant
risks. Economic recession in industrialized countries, their major source of
tourists, and the impacts of tropical storms and cyclones to which many of
them are particularly prone have devastating effects on the tourism sector and
hence on tourism-based island economies. Mass tourism, unlike up-market
tourism, is characterized by relatively high income elasticity of demand and
is likely to fall off suddenly as a result of economic recessions in the
source markets. Excessive reliance on a single major source of tourists, as
in Cyprus and Malta on the United Kingdom market, is extremely risky as
economic difficulties in the source country have direct adverse impacts on the
receiving countries.
26. In small islands, there is a tendency for fast growth of tourism to be
accompanied by inflationary pressures. Prices of real estate, particularly
land suitable for building, which is extremely scarce, quickly rise beyond the
reach of the local population. Inflationary pressures build up throughout the
economy as the prices of locally produced construction materials and consumer
goods rise. Although this process means higher profit margins in bottleneck
sectors and could stimulate more inward investment, overly accommodating
monetary policy could generalize the inflation with adverse consequences for
international competitiveness and future investment.
B. Social and cultural impacts
27. Sudden, rapid development of tourism can cause significant social
disruptions in small island States. Pressures are exerted on households and
communities by the upward pressure on land prices and prices of foodstuffs and
household items. Among other things, potential long-run effects could be a
reduction in the living standards of high proportions of island populations
and a sense of alienation brought about by their lack of access to limited
land resources. Many small island populations also suffer a loss of access to
beaches and important leisure areas because of exclusive rights granted to
developers. This, in some cases, also translates into economic losses as
fishermen and others are adversely affected by loss of access to the sea.
Furthermore, excessively high visibility of foreigners can lead to anxieties
on the part of the local people and a tendency to blame local problems on
them, and thus to a social rejection of the growth of tourism.
28. An important factor in sustainable tourism development in small island
States is the tourist carrying capacity of these societies, in both
environmental and social terms. At peak periods, visitors are known to
outnumber nationals by multiples in several of the smaller islands. In larger
islands such as Jamaica or Fiji, local concentration of tourism often leads to
localized problems of carrying capacity, such as overcrowding of beaches,
traffic congestion, noise pollution, increased incidence of drugs and crime,
and the spread of diseases brought in from outside. Annex table 2 shows the
ratios of tourists to local population for a number of small island developing
States in 1993. 3/ While optimal carrying capacity cannot be quantified with
any exactitude, it is generally contended that the population to tourists
ratio, i.e., the inverse of what is shown in the table, should be kept at a
level that does not exceed social tolerance limits, which may differ from
country to country.
29. Island tourism is invariably centred on sun, sea and sand. However, to
the extent that some interaction occurs with local customs and traditions,
tourism is sometimes believed to exert a negative sociocultural influence on
small island States. A high level of tourism can lead to commercialization,
which is thought to cheapen local customs and traditions. Local arts and
crafts and cultural practices are sometimes adapted to suit foreign tastes,
which leads to the creation of contrived cultural products.
30. Some research conducted in the Asia-Pacific and Caribbean regions,
however, has failed to produce much evidence of major destruction of local
cultures as a result of the influence of tourists. 10/ On the contrary, the
findings indicate that tourism can assist in preserving customs and cultures
by providing incentives to invest in and promote them. If properly managed
and promoted, local cultures can be given an impetus by the presence of
tourists. It is contended, for instance, that the popularization of Jamaican
reggae and carnival festivals of Trinidad and Tobago and similar cultural
forms in other small island States is a direct result of the influence of
tourism.
C. Environmental impacts
31. The fragile ecosystems of small island States and their generally more
limited scope for action in development alternatives make concerns for the
environmental impact of tourism very acute, particularly because the sector,
which is almost totally dependent on the natural environment, is viewed by
many small island developing States as a fast route to social and economic
development. Intensive tourism development and tourism activities often have
very quick and severe impacts on their natural resources. The principal
tourism-related environmental difficulties confronting small island developing
States are several.
1. Land resources and terrestrial biological diversity
32. The environmental impacts of tourism are attributable to the development
of tourism infrastructures and facilities and to the impacts of tourists'
activities. In small islands, even more so than elsewhere, there is strong
competition for the use of land between tourism and other competing uses.
Rising prices of building land increase the pressure to build on agricultural
land. Deforestation and intensified or unsuitable use of land cause erosion
and loss of biological diversity. In many small island developing States,
ecosystems are now being threatened as a result of the development of tourism,
which has intensified human interference with vegetation and wildlife. This
can lead to irreversible damage to their valuable ecosystems and to
traditional activities such as fishing.
2. Waste management
33. For small island developing States, treatment and disposal of liquid and
solid wastes constitute a major problem. With limited physical
infrastructure, the capacity of many small island States is already strained.
This is exacerbated by wastes generated by tourism activities. Examples
abound of damages caused by the disposal of untreated effluents into
surrounding areas of land and sea. Pollution of scarce inland freshwater
resources is one such example. The loss of valuable marine life, the
destruction of coral reefs and the silting and erosion of coastal beaches, on
which island tourism highly depends, are others.
34. Pollution from ship-generated wastes is also a major cause for concern
for small island developing States. One dimension of this particular threat
is the dumping of oily waste, sewage, garbage and cargo residues, which cause
marine and beach pollution, by merchant ships plying their seas. Another
dimension, particularly for the Caribbean, is the frequency of tourist cruise
ships plying that region's seas and generating substantial volumes of liquid
and solid wastes for disposal at the ports of call. The following factors
have been cited as impeding corrective action: inadequate infrastructure;
weak institutional, legislative and enforcement capacities; the absence of a
regional consensus on appropriate criteria for sewage, effluents and coastal
water standards; and the inability of small island developing States to
require cruise ships and other vessels to comply with the provisions of the
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships regarding
generation and disposal of ship wastes.
3. Coastal area degradation 11/
35. Tourism as a mainly coastal development has already had a number of
adverse impacts on small island developing States. In Mauritius, Seychelles,
Malta, Cyprus and several islands in the Caribbean, the previously unchecked
construction of tourism facilities along their coastlines resulted in the
despoliation of much of the originally pristine beauty of these areas. In
order to halt the degradation, the Governments of a number of these countries
have, of late, taken steps through legislation to restrict and control coastal
construction. Stipulations of building size, with limits on height and room
capacity, and specifications of design and materials used in construction have
been instituted in an effort to correct past errors and ensure better harmony
with the natural environment. Beach destruction caused by intensive sand
mining for tourism-related construction is also a feature of many coastal
areas. This practice has recently been curtailed in Maldives, Seychelles,
Mauritius, the Bahamas and Cook Islands, among other States. Beaches
destroyed by sand quarrying are not being naturally replenished because of the
destruction of coral reefs by sewage and other types of pollution. Erosion
owing to tourism facilities and infrastructures built too close to the coast
also contributes to beach destruction and coastal degradation. Another common
feature of coastal area destruction in small island developing States is the
removal of valuable mangrove forests, which act as nesting places for birds
and other animal life in addition to their function as a natural barrier
against encroachment of the sea. Indiscriminate diving, fishing and boating
activities associated with tourism may further contribute to this disturbance.
For a detailed discussion of coastal area issues in small island developing
States, see the report of the Secretary-General on coastal area management in
small island developing States (E/CN.17/1996/20/Add.7).
4. Freshwater resources
36. The problem of freshwater availability is most severe in the low-lying
atolls that have the least opportunity for surface-water catchment and
storage. Several other small island developing States also suffer from
frequent droughts and chronic water scarcity. On the high volcanic islands,
rainfall is in many cases abundant but access to freshwater is often limited
by lack of adequate storage facilities and delivery systems. The supply of
freshwater relative to the growing demand from agriculture, industry and
households is becoming an acute problem in many small island developing
States. Added to this is the growing competition of limited water resources
from tourism, which is extremely water-intensive.
5. Climate change and sealevel rise
37. Island tourism is a climate-sensitive industry, and being largely
concentrated in coastal locations is susceptible to sealevel rise. An
analysis of data by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has
confirmed a trend in global warming, with increases in temperatures of 0.3 to
0.6 degrees centigrade occurring since the late nineteenth century, much of
which has occurred in the past 40 years. 12/ The effect of this trend is a
rise of mean sealevels at a rate of 1.5 millimetres per year. 13/ In small
islands and coastal areas in general, that would cause the inundation of
coastal and some inland areas, threatening sanitation systems and freshwater
supplies as seawater infiltrates subterranean water tables, with possibly
catastrophic consequences for island tourism. An erosion of shorelines would
undoubtedly bring about severe stress and damage to both natural and built
environments, the overall economic consequences of which are currently
inestimable. In addition, damages from tropical storms with a possible link
to changes in weather patterns have been increasing in recent years. Small
island developing States that are especially vulnerable to these phenomena now
experience considerable difficulty securing insurance coverage. Reliable
sunshine is one of the major tourism assets of tropical islands. Potential
threats of climate change, which are beginning to appear in greater health
risks from direct exposure to sunlight, may undermine this asset.
II. MATTERS RELATED TO POLICIES, FINANCE, CAPACITY-BUILDING,
TECHNOLOGY AND INFRASTRUCTURE
38. The present section discusses some of the main policy issues in the area
of sustainable development of tourism at the national, regional and
international levels. Emphasis is placed on legislation, finance,
capacity-building, and sustainable tourism infrastructure and policies as
necessary means of implementing the provisions of the Programme of Action.
A. At the national level
1. Development policy framework
39. Tourism development has been incorporated into the overall development
plans of some small islands. Some Caribbean island authorities have
established tourism master plans, with links to national development plans,
and have created national sustainable development commissions or, as in the
case of Saint Lucia, a National Sustainable Tourism Commission. In the South
Pacific, tourism development plans and policies have been formulated in
several small island developing States. However, the level of policy
commitment to sustainable tourism development differs from country to country,
which in turn influences the degree of action in this area. According to a
study by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP),
this uneven commitment in the South Pacific can serve as an impediment to the
promotion of sustainability at the regional level. 14/ By and large, a
long-term national policy for sustainable tourism development, with emphasis
on natural resource conservation, has yet to evolve. The focus of policies
generally continues to be on: (a) creating and improving conditions for
attracting foreign investment in tourism; (b) marketing and promotion of
tourism to achieve maximum growth in arrivals; and (c) designing the type of
legislative framework that would further those objectives. The prevalence of
this situation points to the urgent need for a policy framework for
sustainable tourism development in most small island developing States.
2. Legislative framework
40. A necessary requirement for the pursuit of sustainable tourism
development is an effective legislative framework. A wide range of laws have
been enacted in small island developing States, in many instances since the
conclusion of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,
establishing standards for land use in tourism development, tourism facilities
and investment in tourism. Despite progress in the enactment of environmental
legislation, its effectiveness continues to be impaired by weaknesses in the
institutional frameworks for enforcing legislation, lack of standardization of
legislation and the obscurity of regulations. Consequently, the level of
enforcement of regulations to ensure sustainability in tourism in many small
island developing States leaves much to be desired. Regulations for coastal
zone management and the creation of protected areas, both marine and
land-based, present a case in point. Their enforcement, particularly in the
Caribbean, remains very weak. 15/
3. Investment
41. The majority of small island developing States suffer from a lack of
local capital for bulky investments and, in many cases, the absence of a
significant local entrepreneurial class. The financing required for the
development of the tourism sector is therefore obtained largely through
foreign investment. Special efforts are made by Governments of small island
developing States to attract foreign capital through the provision of tax
breaks, tax holidays, building concessions and other incentives to foreign
investors. While that may well be necessary to some extent, competition among
small island developing States to attract foreign capital for tourism
development often leads to the provision of over-generous financial incentives
to foreign investors which deprive all these States of part of the income from
tourism. Moreover, since small island developing States are over-reliant on
foreign capital, they are unable to impose environmental sustainability
conditions on foreign investors. Both to derive the maximum benefits from
tourism and to avoid environmental deterioration from tourism activities,
there is a need for small island developing States to jointly adopt uniform
incentive and environmental policies, at least at the regional level.
42. While efforts at encouraging local investment and participation in the
sector have increased in many small island developing States, considerably
more effort is needed. Such efforts are, in many cases, hampered by the
inability of the private sector in most small island developing States to
raise adequate capital. A judicious mix of foreign and local investment, and
especially the encouragement of joint ventures, would be one way of ensuring
the adequacy of capital resources for sustainable tourism development and the
fuller participation of nationals in the sector.
43. Aside from foreign direct investment in tourism, the bulk of
tourism-related services are also known to be largely in the control of
foreign operators in a number of small island developing States. Overseas
sales and marketing, and promotion of tourism packages for most small island
developing States, are undertaken by outside entities. Several domestic
operations are also handled by foreigners. In this area, there is a need for
increased investments in the training of nationals for greater participation
in tourism.
44. In order to supplement the efforts of the private sector at ensuring
sustainability in the tourism sector, greater non-governmental
organization/government partnerships in tourism development could be
developed. Such partnerships can be useful, especially in the restoration,
development and maintenance of cultural and historical sites, while ensuring
conservation and profitability. Funds for investment in such activities could
be raised through mechanisms already existing in many cases, such as increases
in airport taxes and airline ticket taxes, as long as they meet International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) stipulations, and entrance fees for tourism
sites.
4. Human and institutional capacity
45. Most small island States face the persistent problem of inadequate supply
of trained manpower, particularly in government agencies responsible for the
implementation and monitoring of standards and environmental regulations in
tourism. The shortage of skilled human resources is compounded by the
dispersion in some States of roles and responsibilities among several
government agencies. To address these weaknesses, an integrated approach to
tourism planning and environmental conservation, coupled with training at all
levels, needs immediate attention in all small island States. A system for
monitoring the implementation of sustainable tourism policies must also form
part of an integrated approach to tourism planning and the building up of
institutional capacity. A study by ESCAP found that national tourism
organizations, important mechanisms in the development and implementation of
sustainable tourism policies, are largely under-staffed and under-funded. 16/
The study also found that attempts by individual small island States to market
their tourism product themselves have not been significantly effective in most
cases because of the high costs involved and the lack of skilled human
resources. Overall, the shortcomings of capacity could be better addressed
through greater regional collaboration.
5. Infrastructure
46. The main physical infrastructural requirements for tourism development
include the following: effective transportation facilities, including
airports and air and/or sea carrier links; reasonably good road networks;
telecommunication links; reliable energy supply systems; freshwater supply
systems; accommodation facilities; restaurants and entertainment sites. For
many small island developing States, the inadequacy of these infrastructures
is an obstacle to the development of the sector. In some of the smaller
Pacific islands in this category, efforts are being made to build new airport
facilities. This is regarded as a necessary initial step to their fuller
participation in tourism. In the Caribbean, where the sector is more
developed, air links to long-haul markets such as Germany, Italy and France
are being extended.
47. Many small island developing States are confronted with severe
infrastructural inadequacies consequent to the growth of tourism. Many of
them suffer from chronic shortages of freshwater supply for their own use, a
problem that is further aggravated by the high demand of large tourist
populations. Liquid and solid waste disposal present a colossal problem to
all small island developing States but especially to those that are
tourism-based. Another dimension is added to this problem by the requirement
of facilities to handle waste brought to their ports by cruise lines which
frequent small island destinations.
48. The diversification of the tourism product through the development of
nature and cultural tourism also necessitates additional infrastructural and
environmental requirements. Some sites are remote and may require additional
access routes and other infrastructures such as those for the supply of water
and electricity, and new accommodation. These requirements are particularly
burdensome to the archipelagic small island developing States. Generally,
when developing infrastructure, the issue of the carrying capacity of the
destination must also be considered.
6. Technology
49. Sector-specific technology needs of small island developing States are
discussed in various reports to the Commission on Sustainable Development at
its fourth session which highlight the need for the introduction or more
widespread use of certain technologies by tourism enterprises and Governments
of small island developing States, as appropriate. Some examples are: (a)
solar technology for cooling of hotels and for water heating; (b)
environmentally sound technologies for the treatment, recycling and disposal
of solid wastes generated by tourism facilities and those brought to port by
cruise ships; (c) telecommunications technologies for the fuller integration
of small island developing States into global telecommunications networks to
enhance their marketing and promotion operations; and (d) electronic
information technologies to enhance day-to-day tourism operations, such as
reservations.
B. At the regional level
50. The need for greater collaboration among small island developing States
on issues of sustainable tourism development is well recognized.
Collaboration and cooperation could lead to greater long-term benefits for the
environment and the economies of small island developing States, particularly
in an increasingly competitive global arena. The harmonization of standards
and regulations, including legislative actions to govern tourism, has been
identified as a critical need in the Programme of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States and by some regional
authorities. Integrated tourism development planning, marketing and promotion
can increase both effectiveness and efficiency. Joint overseas marketing and
promotion would help achieve benefits of economies of scale and increased
value-added in the tourism sector. Overseas marketing and promotion by
individual small island developing States entail a heavy cost to each of these
States and reduce significantly their net foreign exchange earnings from
tourism.
51. The Programme of Action provides for the pursuit of regional initiatives
in: (a) the harmonization of standards and regulations to ensure that tourism
and the environment are mutually supportive; (b) the promotion of cooperation
in developing potential complementarities in the tourism sector; and (c) the
establishment of mechanisms for information exchange and sharing of
experiences, particularly through existing regional tourism organizations.
The ESCAP report cited above has identified, in addition to those measures,
the need for regional collaboration in: (a) integrating tourism development
planning, including concerted market development and promotion; (b)
strengthening and expanding the roles of national and regional tourism
institutions and organs; and (c) promoting joint training and manpower
development in tourism.
52. In recent years, attempts have been made, particularly in the two main
regions - the Pacific and the Caribbean - to consolidate efforts in
sustainable tourism development by forging common regional approaches for the
sector. The necessary institutional framework currently exists for these
regions in the form of the Tourism Council of the South Pacific and the
Caribbean Tourism Organization. These institutions have been mandated by the
respective regional political forums - the South Pacific Forum and the
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) - to strengthen regional cooperation in tourism
development, planning and promotion. Provision for some financial support has
been made for both institutions under the Caribbean and Pacific regional
tourism development programmes funded by the Lome' Convention concluded
between the European Community and the African, Caribbean and Pacific States.
53. In spite of many difficulties, the Tourism Council of the South Pacific
has been successful as a regional agency in the area of marketing and
promotion of the South Pacific as a tourist destination, but not in the area
of strategy and planning. For the Caribbean small island developing States,
the political framework was consolidated with the formation in 1995 of the
Association of Caribbean States (ACS), 17/ which has identified the tourism
sector as one of three areas for high-priority measures for wider regional
cooperation. Regional cooperation in the area of tourism has been further
strengthened by the formation of the Caribbean Coalition for Tourism, with the
goal of creating the largest possible pool of resources for cooperative
marketing by drawing on the resources of the widest range of players both in
the public and in the private sectors.
54. Resource constraint has been recognized as an impediment for both TCSP
and CTO to adequately cover the broad range of activities that they must
undertake to increase market awareness, promote sustainability, develop human
resources and carry out marketing and promotion. External assistance is seen
as essential to the viability of both institutions. Increased support for
these bodies, aside from regional Governments, will be contingent upon
increased involvement of the private sector in their work. The inadequacy of
political will to cooperate meaningfully is also seen as a major impediment to
effective cooperation in both regions.
55. In the African region, there is little evidence of meaningful effort at
regional cooperation in the area of tourism development. This may be due in
large part to the dispersion of the African small island developing States,
three off the east coast and two off the west coast of Africa, and the
considerable disparity in development and policy emphasis on tourism among
these countries. Given the recognized potential for tourism development,
however, there is a need to begin efforts within this region for a common
approach to sustainable tourism development through an integrated subregional
policy.
56. In the areas of joint training and manpower development, tourism research
and experience-sharing efforts at regional collaboration have been made to
varying extents within the regions. The pooling within each region of the
limited financial and technical resources of individual small island
developing States for capacity-building would be immensely beneficial to all
those States. Collaboration in information exchange and research could be
achieved through the strengthening of regional tourism institutions. A
priority need in this respect is for training in the use of state-of-the-art
information technologies at the regional level for the monitoring of
environmental impacts of tourism, and for the establishment and operation of
central reservation systems.
57. A major area for regional cooperation is air transportation. Two
considerations are worthy of note in this connection. First, small island
developing States cannot depend solely on foreign carriers, which must make
decisions in the best interest of their owners regarding services, routes and
schedules. Such decisions may not always coincide with the best interest of
the countries. Besides, even a major airline serving small island developing
States in a region can suddenly disappear. Secondly, small island developing
States, except for a few, cannot each maintain a viable airline. An effective
solution from the point of view of cost and adequacy of air transportation for
the tourism industry would be regionally owned and managed carriers, with
provision for regional functional cooperation. For a detailed discussion on
air transport needs for small island developing States, see the report of the
Secretary- General on air transport in small island developing States
(E/CN.17/1996/20/Add.5).
III. COUNTRY EXPERIENCES
58. The economic prospects of many small island developing States depend
significantly on a productive tourism sector. For the States, generally, the
furtherance of sustainable tourism development is an economic as well as a
socio-environmental imperative. In these countries, tourism actually provides
an economic rationale for safeguarding the natural environment.
59. Many of the policies that underpin sustainable development were
recognized and elaborated in a number of small island developing States prior
to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and were given
further impetus by it and by the Barbados Conference. For instance, Maldives,
concerned about sustainability in the wake of rapid tourism development,
recognized the need for the establishment of a National Environment Council to
address those concerns as far back as 1985. The preparation of a national
environment action programme, as well as a related work programme, was
completed in 1989, with provision for the systematic inclusion of
environmental issues in the country's national development plan. Specific
policies have been adopted to promote sustainable tourism development,
particularly in the areas of waste disposal, use of coral reefs and
construction in coastal sites and for the type and diversity of accommodation.
18/
60. Policies aimed at the creation of national parks and the encouragement of
visits to wildlife refuges, bird sanctuaries and other natural beauty spots
have been put in place in Seychelles and Mauritius as a means of diversifying
the tourism product with a possible spin-off benefit for the protection and
conservation of these sites. The drive for product diversification and the
enhancement of natural endowments is also very strong in the Caribbean.
Several legislative acts have been passed in individual countries of this
region with the objective of addressing environmental problems. For example,
in Saint Lucia, a National Sustainable Tourism Commission was established and
a National Environmental Action Plan was prepared for implementation in 1994.
A Minimum Standards Act was scheduled for adoption in 1995, with a view to
addressing all areas of hotel, restaurant and tourist carrying capacity. A
Development Control Act has also been approved by the Saint Lucia authorities,
making the conduct of environmental impact assessment and its incorporation
into all decision-making processes mandatory. Jamaica recently carried out a
review of existing environmental legislation. The review resulted in the
passage of new legislation requiring the conduct of environmental impact
assessment for all new developments. 19/
61. In some small island developing States where rapid tourism expansion has
given rise to problems of sustainability and over-reliance on tourism as a
major sector, several measures have been taken in an attempt to overcome such
problems. A case in point is Cyprus, where pollution, beach erosion, physical
carrying capacity and difficulties of competitive pressures on other economic
sectors have been felt. Efforts have been made through the use of economic
instruments and legislation to achieve sustainability and balance. Various
new tax incentives have been introduced to diversify and upgrade the tourism
product and a new marketing strategy focus is directed at improving tourist
quality. Additionally, fiscal instruments are now being used to encourage
sound land use and coastal zone practices aimed particularly at slowing down
and improving coastal development and efficient allocation and use of water
and other resources. Simultaneously, a policy of economic restructuring in
the manufacturing and agriculture sectors have been put in place in order to
improve their overall competitiveness and linkages with tourism. 20/
62. Diversification within or away from tourism has been undertaken in many
small island developing States, notably in Cyprus and Malta. Several
constraining factors have been recognized, including a generally limited scope
and capacity for novel forms of tourism development in small islands, a
usually small proportion of visitors interested in other forms of activity,
and more importantly, the fact that all aspects of tourism accommodation and
other facilities have been geared towards traditional forms of tourism. The
authorities in Mauritius and Seychelles have also adopted some policies for
diversification within tourism, particularly in targeting high-spending
visitors and in encouraging to some extent inland and nature tourism. In the
foreseeable future, however, the need for continued mass tourism is
acknowledged largely because of an existing over-capacity in tourism. A
spin-off benefit of the thrust for quality has been a general upgrading of
facilities and greater attention to avoiding negative impacts. Mauritius has
been relatively successful in achieving some degree of economic
diversification and balanced growth through the development of export
processing zones and, to a lesser extent, agricultural modernization and
diversification.
63. In the Comoros and Cape Verde, the Governments and private sector have
recently demonstrated heightened interest in tourism development. The
institutional groundwork has been prepared in the Comoros with the adoption in
1994 of a national environmental policy document and an environmental plan of
action, and the creation in 1995 of the Association Touristique Comorienne.
The implementation of these plans, however, is subject to a number of
constraints, including poor levels of infrastructure development, particularly
hotels, poor air and communication links with tourist-generating areas and
some degree of political instability. Recent initiatives in Cape Verde
include the adoption of a tourism development plan and the establishment of a
National Institute for Tourism. The main constraints identified are the
following: a lack of interest by the local and foreign private sector; a lack
of demonstrated support by donors for the tourism development plan; and
limited domestic financial resources. 20/
64. Dominica has formally launched eco-tourism as the main form of tourism
development. The island is mountainous, boasts few beaches but has 60 per
cent forest cover containing many endemic species of plants, animals and
birds. Two large national parks, two forest reserves and a Carib Indian
reservation form the basis of eco-tourism attractions. The Government of
Dominica has enacted legislation to ensure heritage and natural resource
preservation, and the creation of linkages with local economic activities.
While no scientific assessment has been conducted of the impact of increased
human activity on the natural environment, several negative trends have been
observed, among which are the accumulation of litter and garbage around nature
sites, the extraction of plants from protected areas and the effects of the
use of soap by local people in rivers and natural pools. Based on the
experience of Dominica, concerns have been expressed regarding issues of
carrying capacity and the impact of large numbers of tourists on
environmentally sensitive ecologies. Although the adoption of regulations and
policy guidelines can be seen as an indication of government commitment to
sustainability, weaknesses persist in the management and policing of protected
areas and tourism sites. Another unique feature of the experience of Dominica
is the emphasis on participation by the local population through tax
exemptions for local shareholder participation in hotels and other ventures.
IV. EXPERIENCES OF MAJOR GROUPS AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS: THEIR ROLE AND INVOLVEMENT IN
THE PROMOTION AND MAINTENANCE OF SUSTAINABLE
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING
STATES
A. Private sector
65. A survey conducted by the World Travel and Tourism Council indicates that
in much of the private sector, the pursuit of sustainability measures in
tourism is gradually becoming a matter of sound business practice. 21/ Little
by little, recognition of the link between conservation measures on the one
hand and profitability and competitiveness on the other is taking hold. Some
private sector companies involved in travel and tourism have reported positive
results from conservation measures, in the form of increased profitability, a
rise in staff morale and an enhanced image among their clientele. In order to
develop voluntary practice approaches, tourism industry associations have
emphasized the use of voluntary environmental codes of conduct and guidelines.
Through a survey and publication, the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP)/Industry and Environment Programme Activities Centre has identified
more than 30 codes, among them, those prepared by main industry associations
such as the World Travel and Tourism Council, the Pacific Asia Travel
Association, the American Society of Travel and the International Hotels
Environment Initiative. 22/
66. An emerging feature among some multinational businesses, particularly in
the hotel sector, is resort to voluntary measures for conservation, primarily
with a view to securing strategic advantages, but also as a means of
precluding more costly retrofitting that may be required by future government
regulations. However, to date, most efforts have focused on energy and water
conservation, waste minimization and product purchase. New tourism
developments should more often incorporate improved plant designs, and
improved energy-efficient features that will enable greater natural lighting,
natural cooling of accommodation facilities, and waste treatment and water
recycling.
67. Already, some progress can be noted: hotel staff are being trained to
adopt energy- and water-saving, and waste-minimization measures during
cleaning; and hotel guests are being encouraged to minimize water use by the
reuse of towels and linens. Product purchase measures are being instituted,
for example, through switching from phosphate-free cleaning products to those
known to have less harmful properties. In the Asia-Pacific region, the
development of integrated resorts is setting a new trend in resort development
with the key objective of exercising greater control over environmental
quality as a means of providing a guarantee of quality to guests. New
complexes are built with all facilities on site, with particular emphasis on
water conservation and recycling, energy supply and conservation, and waste
management.
B. Non-governmental organization and community involvement
68. The growing trend of environmental awareness globally is accompanied by
an increase in international and national environmental movements in tourism
development. For instance, at the international level, the International
Scientific Council for Island Development, with the support of the Government
of Spain and the sponsorship of several organizations, spearheaded the
convening of the World Conference on Sustainable Tourism at Lanzarote, Canary
Islands, in April 1995. The Conference adopted a Charter for Sustainable
Tourism which affirms, inter alia, that: (a) tourism must be sustainable and
integrated with the natural, cultural and human environment; (b) the
achievement of sustainability is contingent upon integrated planning and
cooperation at all levels; (c) tourism development must contribute to local
economic development and improve the quality of life of all people; and (d)
the benefits and burdens of tourism must be more equitably distributed. In
consequence of the Conference, a follow-up committee responsible for the
dissemination of the Charter and for the promotion of related studies,
projects and actions was established; and the launching of a European network
for sustainable tourism development in islands and coastal zones was proposed.
The objective of the network is to generate and diffuse information and
know-how on the promotion of environmentally sound tourism. Like industry
associations, non-governmental organizations such as the Ecotourism Society
and the World Wide Fund for Nature Tourism Concern have also developed codes
of conduct and guidelines for tourism. At the regional level, the Caribbean
Conference on Sustainable Tourism, which was held at Punta Cana, Dominican
Republic, towards the end of 1995, under the sponsorship of Earthkind
International and the Earth Pledge Foundation, explored a wide range of issues
relating to sustainable tourism in that region. A similar conference is
planned for the South Pacific in 1996.
69. At the local level, the involvement of non-governmental organizations,
community groups and local authorities in the promotion and development of
sustainable tourism policies is just beginning but a discernible trend is
apparent in some small island developing States. The following are examples
of recent initiatives: in Trinidad and Tobago, a project has been put in
place at Matura Beach to train community youths as tour guides, with the goal
of preventing poaching of leatherback turtles, an endangered species; in
Jamaica, resort boards, which include representatives of non-governmental
organizations, the local community and business enterprises, have been
established in the main tourism areas of Ocho Rios, Montego Bay, Negril and
Port Antonio for overseeing all aspects of tourism policy, practice and
development; in Mauritius, the authorities have published The Mauritian Code
of Ethics for Tourism: For Mauritians. The Code, which focuses largely on
the social and cultural aspects of tourism, presents guidelines for use by the
local community in their dealings with tourists.
V. ACTIVITIES AND EXPERIENCES IN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
IN SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
A. Organs of the United Nations system
70. A number of organizations and bodies of the United Nations system have
reported plans and activities in the area of tourism development, in keeping
with the Programme of Action. The United Nations Development Programme has
reported that its programme of assistance in the South Pacific and in some
small island developing States in the other regions addresses issues relating
to sustainable tourism development within the overall national environmental
plans of the countries concerned. The Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and ESCAP have planned or recently implemented
specific activities in tourism. ECLAC has reported that proposals for
environmental codes of conduct for the tourism sector, which it recently
developed, are now being carried out by the Caribbean Tourism Organization.
ESCAP has reported that in 1995, it convened a workshop on integrated tourism
planning in Pacific island countries and published a set of studies on foreign
investment in the tourism sector in Samoa and Vanuatu. The United Nations
University is currently undertaking a study to examine indicators of
sustainability for the tourism sector in small islands, along with a project
on eco-tourism. It is expected that the results of these two undertakings
will be useful to small island developing States.
71. In 1992-1993, the World Heritage Convention, sponsored by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in
collaboration with UNEP, carried out surveys on tourism management in natural
and mixed heritage sites and subsequently convened an international seminar
which helped formulate a set of general principles for tourism development in
natural heritage sites. During 1994-1995, UNESCO collaborated with several
regional initiatives on tourism in the Asia-Pacific region. The Earth
Sciences Division of UNESCO has undertaken modelling of human-induced
geomorphologic change to serve as a guide to improved planning of human
settlements. In addition, UNESCO has planned a world heritage promotion
seminar for the Caribbean, and a pilot project on water supply problems and
community attitudes in the South Pacific islands, as well as studies with
reference to the Caribbean on the interrelationships between tourism,
population pressures, pollution and natural hazards. In 1993, through the Pan
American Health Organization Regional Office, the World Health Organization
collaborated with a number of regional organizations to launch the
Environmental Health and Sustainable Tourism Development Initiative for the
Caribbean and to convene the Regional Conference on Environmental Health and
Sustainable Development in the Caribbean. UNEP is making efforts to promote
integrated coastal zone management in small island developing States through
its regional seas programme. The Mediterranean Action Plan and the Caribbean
Action Plan have in particular addressed tourism issues. The Industry and
Environment Office of UNEP has developed fruitful partnerships with industry
associations at the international level to inform about and disseminate
examples of good environmental practices, in particular on codes of conduct
and environment management of hotels. The Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations has planned two regional workshops in 1996, one for the
Caribbean and one for the South Pacific small island developing States. One
of the items on the agenda of both workshops will be linkages of tourism with
agriculture, forestry and fisheries. 23/
B. Other intergovernmental bodies
72. In addition to the Tourism Council of the South Pacific and the Caribbean
Tourism Organization, both of which are intergovernmental bodies whose
activities have been discussed above, the Organization of American States
(OAS) and the European Union have been active in promoting sustainable tourism
development in small island developing States. OAS has assisted Caribbean
small island developing States in various policy studies on sustainable
tourism. The European Union has provided assistance, under ongoing
cooperation arrangements, in carrying out a number of tourism development
projects in African, Caribbean and Pacific small island developing States.
VI. MAIN FINDINGS
73. Tourism already makes an important contribution to economic growth,
employment and foreign exchange earnings in the majority of small island
developing States. It provides an opportunity to most of them for economic
diversification and growth.
74. Looking to the future, there are indications that the development of
tourism in small island developing States will be subject to two current
global trends. First, global travel and tourism output is expected to grow
more rapidly in coming years, outpacing the growth of world economic output.
This trend is expected to reinforce current trends in small island developing
States. Secondly, tourism development in these countries will be shaped by
the growing interest in, and demand for, specialty tourism, particularly
nature tourism propelled by growing environmental awareness. To these trends
may be added another, namely, an apparent upward trend in global warming and
sealevel rise, the persistence of which would have devastating impacts on
island tourism.
75. From the point of view of the future course of action, the following
findings on the economic, social and environmental aspects of tourism in small
island developing States are worthy of note:
(a) Economic aspects. (i) Generally, the leakages through imports out
of direct tourist expenditures to meet the needs of the tourism sector itself
are extremely high in these countries; (ii) the daily expenditures per visitor
vary from country to country but are generally low; (iii) excessive reliance
on tourism carries many risks, including excessive exposure to international
economic shocks and weakening of intersectoral linkages which, inter alia,
reduce the potential benefits from tourism;
(b) Social aspects. Rapid development of tourism, particularly mass
tourism, can have significant adverse social impacts in small islands. The
following are of particular significance: (i) persistent inflationary
pressures pose the danger of significantly worsening the household
distribution of income; (ii) the social carrying capacity of small islands
quickly reaches its limits of tolerance as the ratio of visitors to the local
population rises, causing overcrowding of beaches, noise pollution and
exacerbating traffic congestion; (iii) prolonged growth of mass tourism may be
accompanied by increased incidence of crime, and spread of drugs and diseases,
including HIV/AIDS;
(c) Environmental aspects. Intensive tourism development and tourism
activities, particularly if not properly planned and managed, can very quickly
cause environmental damages in small island developing States. The most
notable impacts are observable in (i) land degradation and loss of terrestrial
and marine biodiversity; (ii) increased levels of pollution from dumping of
solid and liquid wastes generated by tourism activities on land and in the
sea; (iii) coastal zone degradation through intensive sand mining, removal of
mangrove forests and destruction of coral reefs, erosion and destruction of
landscape owing to tourism facilities and associated infrastructures; (iv)
freshwater shortages aggravated by the demand from the water-intensive tourism
industry, excessive groundwater pumping and consequent lowering of water
tables.
Notes
1/ Report of the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of
Small Island Developing States, Bridgetown, Barbados, 25 April-6 May 1994
(A/CONF.167/9 and Corr.1 and 2) (United Nations publication, Sales No. 94.I.18
and corrigenda), chap. I, resolution 1, annex II.
2/ The World Tourism Organization has been trying to get international
agreement on how to measure the contribution of tourism to national economies
and has proposed a Standard International Classification for Tourism
Activities to resolve this issue. The proposal has been adopted, in
principle, by the United Nations Statistical Commission.
3/ The tables are available in the Small Island Developing States Unit
of the Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development. They
will be provided on request.
4/ Estimate of the Caribbean Tourism Organization, as quoted in The
Financing Requirements of Nature and Heritage Tourism in the Caribbean
(Washington, D. C., Organization of American States, 1995), p. 39.
5/ Investment and Economic Cooperation in the Tourism Sector in Pacific
Island Countries, Tourism Review No. 13 (Bangkok, Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1994), p. 167.
6/ George Vassiliou, "Tourism and sustainable development lessons from
the Cyprus experience", in Critical Issues in the Sustainable Development of
Small Developing Islands, World Development Studies, No. 1 (Helsinki, World
Institute for Development Economics Research of the United Nations University,
1995).
7/ Based on data received from national authorities.
8/ Travel and Tourism's Economic Perspectives (London, World Travel and
Tourism Council, 1995), pp. 22-23.
9/ Ibid., p. 1.
10/ Eric Blommestein, "Sustainable tourism in the Caribbean - an
enigma?" in Mark Griffith and Bishnodat Persaud, (eds.), Economic Policy and
the Environment - The Caribbean Experience (Kingston, Jamaica, University of
the West Indies, 1995), pp. 208-210.
11/ The report of the Secretary-General on the protection of the oceans,
all kinds of seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal
areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living
resources (E/CN.17/1996/3) uses the Agenda 21 terminology "coastal area". The
same terminology is used here for the sake of consistency and to avoid
confusion. The terminology used in the Barbados Programme of Action is
"coastal zone".
12/ See The Second Assessment Report Adopted by the World Meteorological
Organization/United Nations Environment Programme Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (Rome, December 1995).
13/ Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Workshop Report No. 96
(Paris, 1994), p. 2.
14/ See Sustainable Tourism Development in Pacific Island Countries
(Economic and social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 1992).
15/ Joy E. Douglas, "Ecotourism: the future for the Caribbean?" in
Industry and Environment (Paris, United Nations Environment Programme/Industry
and Environment Programme Activities Centre, 1992), p. 66.
16/ Sustainable Tourism Development in Pacific Island Countries ...
17/ Formally established in August 1995, ACS includes all CARICOM member
States, other non-CARICOM islands of the Caribbean and the neighbouring States
of Central and South America.
18/ Edward Inskeep, "Sustainable tourism development in the Maldives and
Bhutan", in Industry and Environment (Paris, United Nations Environment
Programme/Industry and Environment Programme Activities Centre, 1992),
pp. 31-34.
19/ Information based on national presentations to the meeting of the
Consultative Group on Environmental Health and Sustainable Tourism Development
in the Caribbean, held in Nassau, Bahamas, in November 1994.
20/ Based on information received from national authorities.
21/ Travel and Tourism, 1994 Review (London, World Travel and Tourism
Council/World Travel and Tourism Environment Research Centre).
22/ Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism, Technical Report No. 29.
(Paris, United Nations Environment Programme/Industry and Environment
Programme Activities Centre, 1995).
23/ Based on submissions from these agencies for the preparation of the
present report.
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