| United Nations |
|
E/CN.17/1995/5 |
Economic and Social Council
Distr. GENERAL
10 February 1995
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Third session
11-28 April 1995
REVIEW OF SECTORAL CLUSTERS, SECOND PHASE: LAND,
DESERTIFICATION, FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY
Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain development
Report of the Secretary-General
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1 - 4 5
I. GENERAL OVERVIEW ....................................... 5 - 14 6
A. Mountain issues, identified gaps and opportunities
for action ......................................... 5 - 9 6
B. Difficulties encountered ........................... 10 7
C. Time-frame ......................................... 11 7
D. Development models ................................. 12 - 14 8
II. REVIEW OF PROGRESS ACHIEVED, MAIN POLICY ISSUES AND
EXPERIENCES ............................................ 15 - 93 8
A. Country experiences ................................ 15 - 29 8
1. Developed countries ............................ 15 - 22 8
2. Developing countries ........................... 23 - 27 10
3. Countries with economies in transition ......... 28 - 29 11
B. Experience of major groups and non-governmental
organizations ...................................... 30 - 46 11
1. Farmers ........................................ 30 - 33 11
2. Women, children and youth ...................... 34 - 40 12
3. Indigenous people .............................. 41 - 42 13
4. Non-governmental organizations ................. 43 - 46 14
C. Matters related to finance and technology .......... 47 - 67 15
1. Finance ........................................ 47 - 56 15
2. Technology ..................................... 57 - 67 17
D. Recent developments and experiences in international
cooperation ........................................ 68 - 93 19
1. Intergovernmental processes .................... 68 - 70 19
2. Organizations of the United Nations system ..... 71 - 86 19
3. Organizations outside the United Nations system 87 - 93 23
III. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS FOR ACTION ................... 94 - 107 24
A. Conclusions ........................................ 94 - 101 24
B. Proposals for action ............................... 102 - 107 26
ABBREVIATIONS
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research
CIP International Potato Centre of CGIAR
CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre
CNRS National Centre for Scientific Research of France
CONDESAN Consortium for Research and Development in the Andean Ecoregion
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GEF Global Environment Facility
IACSD Inter-Agency Committee for Sustainable Development
ICALPE International Centre for Alpine Environment
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
IDRC International Development Research Centre
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
ILCA International Livestock Centre for Africa
ILO International Labour Organization
IMS International Mountain Society
IUCN The World Conservation Union
IUFRO International Union of Forest Research Organizations
MAB Man and the Biosphere programme
NGO Non-governmental organization
TFAP Tropical Forests Action Programme
TMI The Mountain Institute (formerly Woodlands Mountain Institute)
TSS-1 Technical support services at the programme level
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
UNU United Nations University
WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre
INTRODUCTION
1. The present report describes the progress made in the implementation of
the aims set out in chapter 13 of Agenda 21 (Managing fragile ecosystems:
sustainable mountain development) 1/ since the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) in June 1992, and contains a set of
recommendations for action. The report was prepared by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as Task Manager for
chapter 13 of Agenda 21 in consultation with the United Nations Secretariat
and in accordance with arrangements agreed to by the Inter-Agency Committee on
Sustainable Development (IACSD) at its fourth session. At the Conference,
Governments recognized mountains as an important source of water, energy and
biological diversity, as well as a source of such key resources as minerals,
forest products and agricultural products and of recreation. It was realized
that mountain ecosystems were essential to the survival of the global
ecosystem and that about 10 per cent of the world's population depended
directly on mountain resources, with a much larger percentage (estimated at
40 per cent of the world's population) drawing on other mountain resources,
including in particular water (it is estimated that mountains are the source
of about 80 per cent of the world's water resources).
2. Chapter 13 of Agenda 21 contains two programme areas for action:
(a) generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and sustainable
development of mountain ecosystems; and (b) Promoting integrated watershed
development and alternative livelihood opportunities. However, while the two
areas have their particular significance, in the present report they are
treated together, with special emphasis on the need for an integrated
ecosystems approach to sustainable mountain development.
3. The network established during the first ad hoc inter-agency meeting on
chapter 13 of Agenda 21, held in Rome on 21 and 22 March 1994, has developed a
set of proposals for action by United Nations organizations, as well as by
international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) involved in sustainable
mountain development. It has been generally agreed that a special effort will
be needed to move the "mountain agenda" higher on the international and
national development agendas. The above-mentioned NGOs have agreed to
recognize chapter 13 of Agenda 21, as adopted by the Conference, as a basis
for action and to participate in mountain development programmes in a spirit
of cooperation with Governments. With the encouragement of the United Nations
inter-agency group on mountains, a global conference of intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations is to take place in February 1995, in addition
to the series of regional intergovernmental consultations that began in
December in the Asia and Pacific region and will continue in Latin America and
the Caribbean in April 1995. Consultations in Africa, Europe and North
America could take place later in 1995 and in 1996.
4. Although many important urban-based development activities occur in
mountains, the present report concentrates mainly on new approaches concerning
the integrated management of the natural resource base, the interaction
between rural mountain populations and resources in terms of sustainable
livelihoods, and efforts to ensure environmentally sound and sustainable
development of mountain areas.
I. GENERAL OVERVIEW
A. Mountain issues, identified gaps and opportunities for action
5. Mountain ecosystems and environments are of critical importance as water
stores. They are often physically unstable (subject to earthquakes,
landslides and volcanic and torrential phenomena) and sometimes plentiful in
mineral resources. Biologically, mountain ecosystems are characterized by
altitudinal zonation and microclimatic "niches" generating a rich but fragile
biological diversity. Characteristically, human communities in mountains are
self-reliant and have a detailed knowledge of the ecosystems on which they
depend and of how to utilize them. Cultural diversity and richness parallel
the biological diversity, and the specific sacred and/or religious
significance of the mountains themselves is often a prominent cultural
feature.
6. The complexity and diversity of mountain ecosystems make it difficult to
generalize. The need for a comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach to
sustainable mountain development with the effective participation and
empowerment of mountain people has been recognized, as has the need to further
increase awareness at all levels of society of the importance of mountain
ecosystems, together with their problems and potential. The prevalence of
absolute and relative poverty in mountainous regions and the downstream
consequences of the degradation of mountain ecosystems are recognized as major
reasons for mobilizing international efforts to assist countries 2/ to
formulate and implement strategies for sustainable mountain development. A
priority will be to develop and test potentially replicable models for rural
poverty alleviation 3/ that can overcome the obstacles facing populations in
upland areas and ease their transition to more sustainable livelihoods. These
should build on local knowledge, capacities and opportunities, suggesting in
turn that for mountainous regions, multiple adaptive models are likely to be
more successful than approaches based on a uniform development paradigm.
7. There is a general lack of suitable institutional mechanisms to ensure
an integrated approach, in view of the complexity of mountain ecosystems and
the socio-economic issues at stake. In addition, there is scope for improved
policy and legislation for mountain areas, as well as for training and
capacity-building, to make the implementation of chapter 13 of Agenda 21
possible. The need for long-term projects and programmes and long-term
monitoring of their environmental benefits is emphasized.
8. Linkages between traditional knowledge and practices and their effect on
ecosystems should receive more attention. Linkages between data collection
and research, and the utilization and application of results need
reinforcement. A recurrent issue is the plea for more action-oriented data
collection and research linked to specific pilot areas where different
government agencies and non-governmental organizations could coordinate
interventions. Research should also be more responsive to the needs and
aspirations of mountain populations. Improved information systems, networking
and accessible databases have been identified as a priority area for action.
9. Traditionally mountains have had their natural and human resources
drained to benefit the lowlands. At present, however, mountainous countries
can support their upland programmes to a greater degree by channelling some
returns from mountain-derived benefits (such as hydropower, mining, forestry,
tourism), where appropriate, back into the uplands. The empowerment of
mountain communities, including increased control over local resource
conservation and management, in order to become more directly involved in
income-earning activities, is seen as a necessary step in a strategy for
sustainable mountain development.
B. Difficulties encountered
10. One of the main difficulties encountered so far is the failure to see
mountain areas as something special, with a potential of their own and
therefore worthy of special attention. This is reflected in the lack of
mountain programmes of agencies, but maybe even more so at the national level,
where it is still rare to find departments, programmes or legislation dealing
in a comprehensive way with mountain issues. More often than not mountain
areas and populations are at the "thin end" of general national programmes of
education, health, infrastructure and the like, mainly because the cost per
person of providing such services in remote mountain areas is above the
national average and therefore seen by sectoral agencies as uneconomical, and
because of inadequate recognition of the value of mountain natural resources.
Hence in addition to ongoing sectoral efforts there is a need for
comprehensive programmes, at the national and international levels, designed
specifically for mountain areas or, even better, originating in mountain
areas.
C. Time-frame
11. Mountain cultures are old, sometimes very old. National and
international programmes in the mountains have been ongoing for decades. It
should be stressed that international consultations on sustainable mountain
development as a follow-up to UNCED will take time. The "mountain agenda"
will therefore need special emphasis in order to realize the national
planning, legislation and investments called for, and even then only partial
realization of this critical agenda can be envisioned. Emphasis should
therefore be placed on the formulation and installation of flexible, long-
term, support mechanisms, with the mountain populations themselves playing the
lead role and determining the timetable. However, in such areas as poverty
alleviation, management of natural resources and capacity-building,
significant progress and greater support is urgently needed.
D. Development models
12. The Consortium for Research and Development in the Andean Ecoregion
(CONDESAN), has provided a novel approach to mountain development research by
looking at mountain issues in a comprehensive ecosystemic way and being open
to different partners in a collaborative effort. Working at the local level,
the approach is that of an "open consortium", involving a group of Andean
government agencies working together with one or several NGOs under the
general coordination of an informal "committee" in which all participating
organizations are represented.
13. The Tropical Forests Action Programme (TFAP) has gone through a series
of revisions and modifications since being launched in 1985, but has proved to
be a survivor. It has so far involved more than 90 developing (not
necessarily tropical) countries. It has developed mechanisms for
participatory programme development and public debates concerning the
contribution of the forestry sector to national development, which would be
suitable for the formulation of mountain action programmes as well.
14. In addition to these two examples, a wealth of ongoing and recent
operational models for community-based natural resource conservation and
management are being introduced and tested. These include programmes of
national and international NGOs, such as the King Mahendra Trust for Nature
Conservation (Nepal), the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (Pakistan) and The
Mountain Institute (TMI) (Himalayas and Andes); Intergovernmental
organizations, such as FAO, the International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD), the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry
(ICRAF) and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
(ICIMOD); and many national Governments, with or without external support.
II. REVIEW OF PROGRESS ACHIEVED, MAIN POLICY ISSUES
AND EXPERIENCES
A. Country experiences
1. Developed countries
15. In mountain areas, the main challenges faced by industrialized countries
relate to depopulation, abandonment of sustainable systems of natural resource
management (e.g., forests and mountain pastures), the increasing use of land
for recreational activities, and the provision of protection from natural
hazards.
16. Depopulation of mountain areas - in Europe, most notably in France and
Spain - is often a result of the creation of economic opportunities in the
lowland industrial and urban centres, combined with the failure to generate
sufficient employment and improved livelihood opportunities in the mountains.
In Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States of America, for
example, "modernization" in pastoral management has led to a withdrawal from
marginal range land and pasture land that are no longer needed or have become
uneconomical to graze.
17. The process of depopulation is at present being reversed by important
investments in infrastructure for tourism and recreation. Some mountain areas
have become attractive and expensive ski resorts (Aspen, Colorado, United
States of America; Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy) or popular to the point where
artificial snow and light (in Japan for example) must be provided for skiers
24 hours a day in order to meet the demand. This in turn is leading to the
need to construct super highways, hotels, ski lifts and so forth and to
reshape mountain slopes to make ski runs, thereby creating new environmental
pressures.
18. The shift from peasant agriculture to the tourist industry has led to a
jump in demand for safety measures against natural phenomena. The original
population would remain indoors during a blizzard and would be familiar with
the snow and weather conditions and the increased risk of avalanches. The
majority of mountain tourists however, require roads to remain open at all
times, and are unaware of the rapid weather changes in mountains. The
investments in torrent and avalanche control measures to protect visiting
tourists are many times greater than those needed to protect the original
population.
19. At the same time it has become increasingly difficult to establish and
maintain stable forest and range vegetative cover with adequate protective
functions. Many mountain areas in industrialized countries were artificially
afforested or reforested in the nineteenth century. Today these plantations
and the remaining more or less natural forests suffer from lack of
silvicultural interventions, overmaturation and inadequate control of
excessive wildlife populations (which, in addition to being a generally
uneconomical activity, is not appreciated by the general public), and new
environmental conditions such as air pollution and the threat posed by climate
changes.
20. In view of the perceived threat to mountain forests, the European
countries participating in the Strasbourg Ministerial Conference on Forest
Protection in Europe (1990) adopted a resolution on adapting the management of
mountain forests to new environmental conditions. This has led to closer
collaboration among scientists, practitioners, administrators and legislators
on the protection and management of mountain forests, at both national and
international levels, and to a review of legislation and increased funding in
some countries.
21. So far, however, chapter 13 of Agenda 21 has not had a significant
direct influence on policies and programmes of developed countries. However,
Japan enacted the "Law concerning the Promotion of the Improvement of Basic
Conditions of Agriculture, Forestry and other Businesses in Hilly and
Mountainous Areas" in June 1993, and Italy enacted the "New Law for Mountain
Areas" in January 1994. There is an increasing understanding in
industrialized countries of the need for maintaining mountain populations
where they live, in order to ensure sustainable natural resource management
and production systems (through subsidies and provision of infrastructure and
services), preserve mountain cultures and traditions and prevent and combat
forest fires.
22. Support for national development agendas had not yet materialized. It
is expected that the regional intergovernmental workshops planned in
preparation for a proposed world conference on sustainable mountain
development in 1997 (see para. 75 below) will alert Governments and national
agencies to the needs and potential for special national mountain agendas. So
far chapter 13 of Agenda 21 has received very limited attention at national
level.
2. Developing countries
23. Two conditions make urban migration away from the mountains in
developing countries very different from urban migration elsewhere. First,
the weak economies of developing countries cannot absorb migrants, many of
whom end up in peri-urban slums, and secondly, mountain population densities
remain high (relative to carrying capacity and conservation needs) and in many
cases are growing.
24. Developing country institutions dealing with mountain development are
new compared with, for example, some of the European torrent and avalanche
control services dating back more than 100 years. In addition they are
usually understaffed and lack adequate long-term funding.
25. Exceptions to this general rule may be found in recent developments in
Colombia and Lesotho. In Colombia, the Regional Autonomous Corporations,
created by Act No. 99 of 1993, have been made responsible for environmental
management. The great majority of these Corporations are situated in the
Andes, thus providing a high degree of autonomy to the mountain areas of the
country. In Lesotho, the Highland Water Development Scheme, which involves
the construction of four major dams and water conduits for the sale of water
to South Africa constitutes the most important investment and potential
sustainable income earner for the country, which is all mountainous. The
state of Himachal Pradesh in India has made significant progress in economic
development by transforming a subsistence food production economy into a
market economy based on opportunities for horticultural development in a
mountain environment.
26. Several developing countries have made significant progress in
participatory rural development and watershed management in the uplands,
compared with the industrialized countries in temperate zones. The main
reason is that the mountain areas in tropical and subtropical countries are
often densely populated in areas where farming, even at altitudes higher than
3,000 metres above sea level, is still possible. The participatory techniques
in community forestry, soil and water conservation and watershed management
include grass-roots participation and bottom-up planning methods, which are
currently being applied in a large number of programmes in a variety of
situations. 4/
27. In general, although a wide range of activities are ongoing in mountain
areas in developing countries, few if any, can be considered as being
initiated or strengthened as follow-up to chapter 13 of Agenda 21. On the
other hand, several initiatives, although not a direct follow-up to
chapter 13, have the potential to become the first steps towards a
comprehensive "national mountain agenda". The Government of Viet Nam is
developing a strategy for the uplands and watersheds inhabited by ethnic
minorities. Other countries have relevant past experiences such as Ethiopia
(Highlands Rehabilitation), Morocco (rural development in the province of
Azilal), and Guinea (Fouta Djallon). Much remains to be done, however, to
create awareness among developing country planners and policy makers of the
potential for mountain development and the specific requirements related to
mountains.
3. Countries with economies in transition
28. The problems related to mountain areas of countries with economies in
transition are in many ways similar to those of industrialized countries.
Urban migration and neglect of forest management interventions, however, are
further exacerbated by the very high levels of air pollution, structural
changes that have affected institutional capacity, and limited experience with
multisectoral participatory planning.
29. As a follow-up to the Strasbourg and Helsinki Ministerial Conferences on
Forest Protection in Europe, the Czech Republic has convened two international
meetings on the protection of watershed forests affected by air pollution. In
1993, acting on the recommendation of those meetings, the Government of Poland
organized a national conference on environmental threats to the Western
Sudeten forests. A proposal has been made to establish a centre for the
restoration of degraded mountain environments in Hercynian mountains.
B. Experience of major groups and non-governmental organizations
1. Farmers
30. Farmers in the mountains include members of indigenous communities and
subsistence farmers practising shifting cultivation. There are small-scale
family farms, medium- and large-scale plantations (forest, fruit trees) and
livestock farms and enterprises. Geographically consolidated mountain farm
units with legal title to land are relatively rare. Instead, the income of
the farm family is generally based on a great variety of activities, including
livestock, mixed cropping from several small scattered plots, gathering of
forest products, hunting and fishing, off-farm employment, cottage industries
and handicrafts and tourism.
31. Because of the multi-faceted sources of income of mountain farmers,
traditional sectoral extension services have not usually reached them, either
because of their remoteness and scattered locations, or because the production
units in each production line (coffee, tea, grains, livestock, fruit) are
considered too small. In addition, because of the generally insecure income
and land tenure situation, they have not usually qualified for normal credit
schemes. Mountain farming furthermore relies on the exploitation of highly
variable and complex ecological niches, where local knowledge is often
superior to what extension agents can offer based on research and experience
derived from extensive lowland farming systems. Without increased research
geared to their specific requirements (such as the work carried out by the
International Potato Centre (CIP) of the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR), among others), mountain production systems are
unlikely to benefit from further extension services.
32. Some progress is being made to overcome the above problems through
special upland integrated development programmes involving group credits,
multi-purpose extension agents at the village level, forest occupancy
agreements, farmers' associations and the like. Much needs to be done,
however, to further develop promising experiences of past and existing pilot
schemes and demonstration projects, and apply the lessons learnt.
33. The dramatic increases in agricultural production following the "green
revolution" and the privatization of agriculture in countries with centrally
planned economies have not significantly benefited mountain farmers. The
agricultural services and secure land tenure available to lowland farmers are
generally not available to upland farmers, whose needs are different. Much of
the green revolution technology does not work properly in uplands and in areas
lacking improved access. Although a few practices, such as stall feeding of
animals, planting of leguminous trees and vegetative barriers against erosion,
have general application, local solutions of an integrated nature are usually
required.
2. Women, children and youth
34. The number of migrant labourers originating in mountain areas -
practically every family in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and in the Maloti
Mountains of Lesotho has a male family member working elsewhere - and the high
birth rates in some already densely populated mountain areas (the Andes and
the Himalayas in particular) make women a particularly important group to be
involved in the design and implementation of mountain development programmes.
35. Frequently, when the male head of household is away, the women who are
left behind to manage the family, the animals and the land do not have the
necessary authority to make decisions. In other situations, women cannot
participate in meetings away from the home or find it impossible to face the
prospect of further investment of their time and efforts because they are
already overloaded with responsibilities.
36. Some Governments and development agencies are starting to address these
issues by making sure that women participate in programme design from the very
early stages, although they often fail to make adequate provision for the
additional initial efforts, and therefore costs. On the other hand, mountain
women, once organized, and perceiving that they are able to benefit, are often
very active in development activities despite their busy schedule. Increased
sensitivity to gender issues among development workers and experts is urgently
required.
37. The FAO/Italy Interregional Project for Participatory Upland
Conservation and Development commenced work simultaneously in five countries
in 1991 (Bolivia, Burundi, Nepal, Pakistan and Rwanda). In all cases the
international project design team consisted of a male and a female member, and
had a period of three months in which to design the project, in consultation
with the watershed populations following a participatory rural appraisal in
order to ensure adequate representation by all groups. During the first two-
year phase of the programme, this led to a series of local initiatives, which
during the following three-year phase are being closely monitored and are
gradually finding their niche in the evolving multi-stakeholder plan for the
watershed. This process represents a complete turnaround from traditional
regional planning by government agencies in order to define action programmes
often seen as of low priority by the local people.
38. The general situation remains, however, in which mountain families are
split for long periods because of the need for income from outside employment.
Young people are leaving the mountains to look for a better future elsewhere
or are involved in such activities as herding, mining or forestry, which take
them away from home for extended periods. Children at an early age are forced
to attend to grazing livestock, fetching water, fuelwood and fodder, and
looking after younger siblings, instead of attending school (if a school
exists). As a result, school drop-out rates are exceedingly high in mountain
regions. The challenge in basic education programmes is to adopt approaches
that recognize these realities and design programmes that are relevant to the
local situation. Not enough has been done to help children and youth to
recognize the potentials and constraints of their environment and to take
action, together with teachers and parents, for achieving a better livelihood.
39. Although the World Bank in one of its recent annual reports has
identified rural women in developing countries as the investment target with
the highest potential, financial and other allocations to women, particularly
to women in the mountains, remain totally inadequate. The difficulties and
obstacles to achieving a greater role for mountain women, a greater
contribution from them and their overall participation are formidable. Girls
are not encouraged to pursue education beyond primary school and, because of
their multiple responsibilities, often remain illiterate as well as culturally
constrained in making their opinions known when men are present. Many
mountain women speak only the local language, which is often not the official
language of the nation let alone an international language. The
recommendations of the International Conference on Population and Development
specifying measures to be taken for the empowerment, equity and equality of
women, and to eliminate discrimination against the girl child, represent the
most recent international agreements concerning the status of girls and
women. 5/ They should also be implemented in mountain areas.
40. While the involvement of mountain women in the process of achieving
sustainable development is strategically important and can be cost-effective,
in many cases completely new ways of working with communities are needed.
Participatory methods in soil conservation and community forestry increasingly
include drawing, dancing and performing plays, which enable women to express
their opinions and needs. Further development and large-scale application of
such methods are seen as indispensable if real progress is to be achieved.
3. Indigenous people
41. Armed conflicts and other problems involving mountain communities have
been given extensive coverage by the mass media and with it some attention to
the issue of mountain development as well as the situation of indigenous
mountain populations. However, although armed conflicts make more headlines
and indeed represent immense human suffering, it is probably the more gradual
encroachment on the mountains by displaced lowland people that has had the
most serious impact on indigenous mountain communities over the past four
decades. The devastating effects of short-fallow shifting cultivation are
often not the work of mountain people, but of landless lowland farmers moving
farther up into mountain areas as squatters in search of "unoccupied" land and
applying lowland production techniques unsuited to complex upland realms.
42. Sustainable mountain development in many places has to start with a
change in attitude towards indigenous people and in the way they are treated.
Their right to the land should be recognized, as should their knowledge of the
special living conditions and natural resource management in the mountains.
They should be protected from exploitation by drug dealers, tourist operators
and guerrilla movements. In many countries this involves extremely sensitive
issues. However, some progress is being made involving official granting of
land titles, granting of partial autonomy, teaching in local languages and so
forth. New development models involving indigenous mountain people are
appearing; they are badly needed.
4. Non-governmental organizations
43. Non-governmental organizations, including the International Mountain
Society (IMS), and people with close NGO contacts working in intergovernmental
institutions such as ICIMOD were instrumental and in some instances played a
decisive role in ensuring that a special chapter on mountains (chapter 13) was
included in Agenda 21 and approved by UNCED. This is recognized in
chapter 13, in which it is stated that national Governments and
intergovernmental organizations should:
"(a) Coordinate regional and international cooperation and
facilitate an exchange of information and experience among the
specialized agencies, the World Bank, IFAD and other international and
regional organizations, national Governments, research institutions and
non-governmental organizations working on mountain development;
(b) Encourage regional, national and international networking of
people's initiatives and the activities of international, regional and
local non-governmental organizations working on mountain development,
such as the United Nations University (UNU), the Woodlands Mountain
Institute (WMI), the International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), the International Mountain Society (IMS), the
African Mountain Association and the Andean Mountain Association,
besides supporting those organizations in exchange of information and
experience". 6/
44. International NGOs, such as the World Conservation Union (IUCN), support
national and local activities ranging from the formulation of national
environmental and forestry action plans, and the establishment of protected
areas and national parks, to indigenous people and local user groups, among
others. This work is carried out in collaboration with Governments and
intergovernmental organizations, as well as with national and local NGOs.
45. National level NGOs play an increasingly important role in mountain
development programmes. The Aga Khan Rural Support Programme in Pakistan, the
King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation in Nepal, and the Fundacio'n
Peruana para la Conservacio'n de la Naturaleza in Peru are but a few examples.
46. The number of local NGOs supporting mountain communities has greatly
increased, as recognition of and hence support for, their role has gained
ground. The increased flow of information to and between local level NGOs has
improved the quality of their activities and, in many instances, has helped to
clarify their partnership role in development efforts alongside decentralized
government agencies.
C. Matters related to finance and technology
1. Finance
47. Sustainable mountain development is still almost entirely financed on an
ad hoc project rather than programme basis. Mountains have not yet been the
object of special financial mechanisms, although such arrangements would be
entirely justified. Mountains do not have an equivalent to the TFAP or an
international convention with a financing mechanism such as the Global
Environment Facility (GEF). The many attempts to link the construction of
large dams and the sale of hydroelectricity and irrigation water with the
financing of integrated watershed conservation and development have remained
largely frustrated. Recently, however, both the Inter-American Development
Bank and the World Bank have become increasingly interested in environmental
issues related to natural resources conservation (forests and water) in
watershed and mountain areas.
48. Mountain areas are very often poor, not because they do not produce, but
because they do not obtain a fair price for their products and services.
These include water, forest products and services, tourism and recreation,
mining, special upland crops, fruits and animal products (ranging from milk
and cheese to clothing and carpets).
49. One of the main sustainable sources of income for mountain areas would
appear to be based on new developments concerning water tariffs. Lesotho is
at present engaged in a major highland water scheme that will enable the
country to sell water to South Africa. This will be one of the first cases of
a major financial arrangement in which the value of water as a scarce natural
resource will be recognized. Most existing water tariffs are based only on
the need to recover the costs of dam construction and delivery systems for
example, water being considered a free - unlimited - natural resource.
50. Colombia has for several years applied a financial mechanism for
watershed management and upland rural electrification based on a special tax
of 4 per cent (now changed to 6 per cent) on the bulk sale of
hydroelectricity.
51. At the national level, a new and hard look needs to be taken at the
overall flow of resources and services to and from mountain areas, including
water, forest and range products, labour, and government services. New or
revised water tariffs, forest and mining royalties, grazing rights and leases,
marketing of medicinal herbs and other non-wood forest products, fees for
access to national parks and licences for tourism operations are all possible
income earners for development action benefiting mountain communities, which
would in turn allow these communities to invest in, and not receive as
government hand-outs, housing, communication, roads, education and nutrition.
52. Mountain areas can benefit, and in some cases are benefiting, from
programmes financed by GEF. GEF, however, is not at present oriented towards
mountain development as such, although the international conventions on
climate change and biological diversity are important in relation to mountain
areas. Other categories eligible for GEF financing, such as international
waters and land degradation, are often also pertinent to mountains. Further
consideration should be given to financing relevant aspects of mountain
development programmes by GEF or other financial mechanisms.
53. In relation to Capacity 21 the special programme of the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) for strengthening country capacity for the
implementation of UNCED decisions), the creation or strengthening of regional
and national capacity for the identification and formulation of sustainable
mountain development programmes is badly needed.
54. Technical support services at the programme level (TSS-1), a new
financial mechanism for UNDP-financing of technical support provided by United
Nations specialized agencies, is a potentially useful mechanism for the
formulation of mountain development programmes. A UNDP/FAO TSS-1 project in
Viet Nam on Watershed Management and Ethnic Minorities, has been useful in
improving the design of participatory watershed management projects.
55. Whether it be done in relation to GEF or as part of TFAP on Capacity 21,
for example, there is a real and urgent need to define and create special
financial facilities for sustainable mountain development. Such financing
need not necessarily involve huge amounts of funding but should be long term,
dependable and flexible. As the present report demonstrates, many national
and international organizations have programmes in mountain areas, and in fact
a great deal of money is already being spent on activities involving mountain
areas. What appears to be needed is a more systematic approach to investment
in mountain areas - in short, programmes involving mountains should be
supplemented with "mountain programmes".
56. As a starting point it is proposed to establish one or several "mountain
facilities", as small grants funds or multi-donor trust funds, for example.
This would allow mountainous developing countries to identify action required
under a "national mountain development action programme" and to seek
international support for the implementation of such a programme. In the
immediate future, increased international funding would be needed to establish
pilot projects under such national programmes and significantly increase
support for applied and operational research in mountain areas, national and
international networking, communication, exchange of experiences and the like.
Long-term commitments might be generated through the formulation and
negotiation of a non-legally binding mountain charter and through regional or
subregional mountain conventions.
2. Technology
57. Mountain areas have benefited from the preparation and implementation of
national forestry master plans or national forestry action plans in the
framework of TFAP, the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), national
environmental action plans and the FAO International Scheme for Conservation
and Rehabilitation of African Lands, for example. However, without a specific
focus on mountain issues, mountain areas often find themselves at the back of
the queue, with the possible exception of forestry activities, when programme
implementation gets under way because of the difficulty of access, lack of
basic information (soil surveys, socio-economic parameters) and the need for
local comprehensive solutions based on slow participatory processes.
58. Available sources of information on appropriate technology to promote
the sustainable development of mountain areas include libraries and databases
of FAO, ICIMOD, CIP and other centres of CGIAR, and the World Conservation
Monitoring Centre (WCMC). The existing information is accessible to, but not
widely disseminated in, developing countries.
59. Road construction in mountain areas, although recognized as a major
environmental problem, is still of an unsatisfactory quality in most
developing countries. The difference between construction standards of
mountain roads in industrialized countries and those in developing countries
is greater than would be expected from the differences in costs. The
situation is compounded by the fact that poorly constructed mountain roads
usually require much higher maintenance costs, and are often ecologically and
even culturally damaging.
60. Mining in mountain areas, while potentially an important income-earner,
has a history of negative environmental and social impacts. Often mountain
communities do not have the necessary financial and technical capacity to
establish and manage mining operations, and yet as labourers, mountain people
suffer the adverse health impacts of hazardous working conditions, as well as
the consequences of the strong fluctuations in demand and prices of metals and
minerals on the world market. Progress is needed in three areas: ensuring
that an increasing share of mining royalties benefits the local populations;
increased social security and health benefits for mining workers; and the
mitigation of environmental impacts of mining operations.
61. Urban development in the mountains presents special challenges regarding
water supply, air pollution and sewage and waste disposal, among other things.
Lack of space may force construction on unstable sites or in areas that should
be conserved for water supply catchments on routing of flood waters. This in
turn may increase the adverse impact of phenomena such as landslides,
mudflows, flash floods or prolonged drought.
62. Traditional irrigation technology in mountain areas has been eclipsed by
modern dam construction and the rapid development of large downstream
irrigation schemes, generally inappropriate for mountain areas. There is an
urgent need to rediscover and re-apply such traditional technologies as the
Andean irrigation techniques developed by the Incas as well as mountain
civilizations in other regions. Generally speaking, irrigation in the
mountains, based on small-scale appropriate technology, is far more
sustainable than the large-scale irrigation schemes in hot climates
downstream, with the possible exception of the flood-irrigated lowlands in
monsoon climates in Asia.
63. A major development in government policy concerning mountain communities
is the increased understanding of the importance of local control over natural
resource management and security of resources, especially land tenure, as the
main incentives for investment in environmentally sound technologies and
improved land husbandry. Much needs to be done, however, before the
confidence mountain people lost because of past policies of sweeping
nationalizations, concessions to outsiders with limited control and punitive
attitudes towards small farmers practising hillside agriculture can be
completely restored.
64. Tourism in mountain areas is still far from fulfilling its potential
contribution to the local mountain economies. Positive examples exist in
Austria (Tyrol) and in Italy (Trento Autonomous Province) and other mountain
areas where the benefits of tourism have had a direct impact on the local
household economies, and have practically eliminated poverty in such areas.
In other areas, tourism has had severe social and cultural as well as
ecological impacts. Bhutan is seeking to keep tourism within ecologically and
culturally "safe limits" by, among other things, restricting the number of
visitors. Regarding developing countries in general, it is worth remembering
that (a) not all mountain areas benefit from tourism - it cannot, therefore,
be considered a solution available to all mountain communities - and (b)
institutional and financial mechanisms are usually insufficient to ensure
local participation in and control over the "tourist industry" in the
community.
65. While it is true in general that development, in order to achieve
sustainability, should take a new and careful look at traditional cultures,
practices and skills, this is particularly so in mountain ecosystems and
cultures. The attraction of mountain tourism is mainly based on two aspects:
the mountain landscape and the culture of the people. The cultural knowledge
of mountain people includes engineering (construction of houses, trails,
bridges, terraces, irrigation canals, water harvesting and spreading systems);
animal husbandry (sheep, goats, camels, yaks and llamas and their products,
including clothing, carpets and cheese), traditional dress, dances, songs,
musical instruments; rules and regulations for local government and land and
water allocation; traditional medicines, medicinal herbs; forest and range
products, including a wide range of food sources (mushrooms, berries, roots,
leaves, tubers). Sustainable development of mountain ecosystems must build on
this knowledge, bearing in mind three aspects: the richness of accumulated
traditional mountain cultures; the rate at which this knowledge is
disappearing; and the need for the application of state-of-the-art technology
(in communication, mountain engineering, energy, risk mapping and early
warning systems, local resource management and local government) to enable
mountain communities to make a "leap forward", applying modern technology with
as much as possible of the traditional culture still intact.
66. Some progress has been made. Government and development agencies are
increasingly aware that the limiting factors in sustainable mountain
development are not only lack of "assistance" (technical, medical, food), but
also lack of "empowerment" (land titles, local autonomy, generation of
income). Some Governments have not only restored land titles to indigenous
mountain communities, but have also paid compensation for past damages (in the
case of the Pueblo of Zuni in the United States of America, for example).
67. A wealth of new research collaboration involving cooperative
arrangements between international institutions and local research
organizations has appeared in recent years. CONDESAN is one example. Others
include the use of Worldwatch Institute volunteers in mountain ecology
research in Eastern Europe; and the work carried out by TMI in Bolivia, China,
Nepal and Peru; the collaboration between the United Nations University (UNU)
and IMS and the establishment and strengthening of regional mountain
associations. On the intergovernmental side, the creation of ICIMOD in 1983,
the recent establishment of the Centre for International Forestry Research
(CIFOR), at Bogor, Indonesia, the African Highlands programme of ICRAF and the
special emphasis on mountains in the programmes of CIP open up new
possibilities for support for local mountain research.
D. Recent developments and experiences in international
cooperation
1. Intergovernmental processes
68. Several European countries are in the process of revising their forest
laws and regulations, especially regarding mountain forests. The Strasbourg
Ministerial Conference on Forest Protection in Europe (1990) adopted a
resolution on adapting the management of mountain forests to new environmental
conditions. A permanent institutional mechanism for follow-up to this
resolution, coordinated by Portugal, has been found in the FAO European
Forestry Commission Working Party on the Management of Mountain Watersheds.
This Working Party, established 42 years ago, with a broad mandate for
integrated development in mountain areas in Europe, has the potential of
becoming a useful regional vehicle for various aspects of chapter 13 as well.
69. The Alpine Convention, including a Protocol on Mountain Forests, has
been negotiated and is now being ratified by Austria, France, Germany, Italy,
Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia, Switzerland and the European Union. The
Council of Europe is preparing a "European Charter for the Mountain Regions".
70. As recommended by the first ad hoc inter-agency meeting on chapter 13 of
Agenda 21 (Rome, March 1994), a series of regional intergovernmental
consultations on the follow-up to chapter 13 are to take place during the
period 1994-1996. ICIMOD organized the Regional Conference on Sustainable
Development of Fragile Mountain Areas in Asia in December 1994. The regional
meeting for Latin America and the Caribbean is to be organized by CIP in
April 1995. The regional meeting for Africa is tentatively scheduled for
October 1995.
2. Organizations of the United Nations system
71. The agencies and organizations present at the first ad hoc inter-agency
meeting had generally one thing in common: they all had important activities
in mountain areas but no mountain programme as such. This is especially true
for the United Nations organizations including FAO, IFAD, the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), UNESCO, the United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF) and the World Bank, with the exception of UNU, and for the
International Union of Forest Research Organizations, an NGO. Organizations
with a focus on mountains are those created around mountain issues. They
include ICIMOD and CIP and such NGOs as IMS and TMI. Among institutions with
a significant interest in mountains, but not present at the inter-agency
meeting are IUCN (which has had a Mountain Initiative since 1991), the
International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the International Academy of
the Environment, regional international development banks, regional mountain
associations, ICRAF and UNDP.
72. The organizations present at the inter-agency meeting agreed to
establish an E-mail Network on Mountains, as called for by IACSD. This has
since been extended to constitute a more complete group of international
organizations concerned with the follow-up to chapter 13.
73. Based on the recommendation of the inter-agency meeting, TMI convened an
NGO Planning Workshop on the Mountain Agenda in West Virginia, United States
of America, from 22 to 26 July 1994.
74. FAO has established a Steering Committee on Environment and Sustainable
Development to, among other things, coordinate follow-up for the chapters and
activities of UNCED for which FAO is responsible as Task Manager. For
chapter 13, a focal point in the Forestry Department has been designated and
an Interdepartmental Mountain Group has been established with the
participation of nine divisions in addition to the Forestry Department.
75. The first action by FAO, in its role as Task Manager, was to convene the
ad hoc inter-agency meeting on chapter 13 (Rome, 21 and 22 March 1994). The
meeting was attended by representatives of 13 agencies and non-governmental
organizations. 7/ The meeting agreed that it would be necessary to make a
special effort to move the issue of fragile mountain ecosystems and the
"mountain agenda" higher on the international and national development
agendas. It was also noted that no readily available or additional resources
had been earmarked for immediate action, as called for in chapter 13. The
meeting therefore proposed a series of activities aimed at raising awareness
and moving mountain issues higher on the international development agenda.
FAO, as Task Manager, was requested to seek donor support for preparatory
consultations within a steering committee, as well as a series of regional
workshops leading to a world conference on sustainable mountain development to
be held in late 1995 or early 1996 (now proposed by FAO for 1997). NGOs were
encouraged to establish cooperative mechanisms among themselves for the
further development of chapter 13 and to make proposals to the Commission on
Sustainable Development at its third session, in April 1995.
76. Examples of past and ongoing action in mountain areas carried out by
intergovernmental organizations are given below.
77. Within the CGIAR system, CIP has been designated to coordinate the
follow-up of chapter 13. CONDESAN is a participatory research consortium for
the identification, promotion, implementation and monitoring of collaborative
activities, including training and information functions. INFOANDINA is the
communication and information exchange system of CONDESAN, reaching 70,000
people world wide.
78. FAO is assisting a large number of mountainous countries by providing
policy advice, technical assistance and training. This includes programmes on
people's participation, with particular attention to the role of women.
Sophisticated methodologies have been developed - for example, to match crops
to different ecological conditions and to manipulate the vast amount of data
on soils, climate and vegetation of mountain areas. Participatory approaches
are being developed in soil conservation and land rehabilitation, community
forestry and watershed management and other activities related to upland
conservation and development in mountain areas. FAO's Agricultural Services
Division together with ICIMOD organized the International Workshop on
Evolution of Hills and Mountain Farming Systems: Sustainable Development
Policy Implications in Nepal in October 1994. A similar meeting will be
organized in Ecuador in 1995 in collaboration with CIP. As Task Manager for
chapter 13, FAO has established a focal point in its Forestry Department and
set up an Interdepartmental Working Group. Pursuant to the recommendation of
the first ad hoc inter-agency meeting, FAO's Director-General has called for
donors to support the proposed world conference on sustainable mountain
development in 1997.
79. The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) is becoming
involved with mountain issues through projects dealing with water resources
management and the mitigation of flood disasters. A publication on human
settlement issues in the sustainable development of mountain areas is planned.
80. ICRAF is launching the African Highlands Ecoregional Initiative, with
the overall goal of helping communities in the densely populated and
intensively cultivated highlands of eastern and central Africa, in order to
alleviate poverty and related social and environmental problems. About 10
national and international research institutions are involved in this project
including the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), based
in Mexico; CIP, based in Peru; the International Crops Research Institute for
the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), based in India; and the International
Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), based in Ethiopia.
81. UNEP has been specially concerned with mountains since 1985 through its
programme on Andean ecosystem management and regional workshops on mountains.
UNEP will contribute especially to chapter 13, programme area A, objective
(b): "To maintain and generate database and information systems to facilitate
the integrated management and environmental assessment of mountain
ecosystems". It contributed to the NGO Planning Workshop on the Mountain
Agenda in July 1994 and the Regional Conference on Sustainable Development of
Fragile Mountain Areas in Asia, organized by ICIMOD in December 1994 and will
contribute to the conference of intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations scheduled for February 1995 and other international meetings on
sustainable mountain development. A publication in the Environmental
Management Guidelines series, The Integrated Management of Mountain Ecosystems
is being finalized.
82. UNESCO contributed to the activities of the "mountain agenda" group
through a trust fund contribution from Germany. Activities in the field of
sustainable mountain development are mainly carried out within the framework
of the MAB programme (more than 40 per cent of all biosphere reserves
recognized under MAB are located in mountain areas); the International
Hydrological Programme (IHP), which addresses specifically the hydrology of
mountainous areas; earth science programmes such as the International
Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP), which focuses on geological factors
controlling the global environment; and programmes related to the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, which address the
vulnerability of, for example, landslide-prone areas using appropriate
technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems. A
synthesis of MAB research in mountains of western and eastern Europe
(including the former Soviet Union) was published in the third quarter of
1994. A similar synthesis for tropical mountains is in preparation.
83. UNICEF is represented and active in many mountain countries, especially
because mountain people are amongst the most vulnerable, with high child
mortality rates. A study on children and poverty in mountains is in
preparation. As a follow-up to Agenda 21, the UNICEF Executive Board, in
1993, formally adopted a policy to integrate primary environmental care (PEC)
in all UNICEF-assisted programmes. Special attention is to be devoted to
mountain areas and other ecologically stressed and vulnerable areas, and
greater efforts are to be made in reaching the poorest, whose livelihood has
been seriously affected by resource degradation.
84. The UNU mountain programme was initiated in 1978 under the title
"Project on highland-lowland interactive systems" and subsequently renamed
"Mountain ecology and sustainable development". Its objectives are to train
scholars, carry out scholarly and applied research, disseminate results and
develop an international mountain network. UNU was a major partner, together
with IMS, ICIMOD and others in the preparation and dissemination of the two
main publications on mountains issued in preparation for UNCED - The State of
the World's Mountains: A Global Report, and An Appeal for the Mountains.
85. The mountain research initiated by UNU has involved extensive field
studies in the Himalayas, Thailand, south-west China, the Andes, Ethiopia and
Kenya. The work has included studies on natural and man-made mountain
hazards, human impacts and human environmental perceptions. Each sub-project
has also contributed to the training of young scholars in the host countries.
Especially important is the series of challenges to conventional environmental
wisdom and the insistence on respect for the indigenous environmental
intelligence of the subsistence farmer. In particular, this has led to a
deeper understanding of the relationship between deforestation in mountain
areas by subsistence farmers (especially in the Himalayas) and downstream
devastation on the plains (especially Gangetic India and Bangladesh). The
work has been backed up by a long series of regional and international
conferences and training programmes, and the publication of their proceedings
in the UNU journal, Mountain Research and Development, and other forms. This
enabled UNU, in conjunction with IMS, ICIMOD and others, with funding by the
Swiss Development Cooperation, to formulate "Mountain Agenda 1992" and so play
a major role in ensuring the passage of chapter 13 as part of Agenda 21. The
primary ongoing activity involves a major study of a Central Asian mountain
transect, including the Pamirs-Tajikistan-Karakoram-Himalayas-Tibetan
Plateau-Hengduan Mountains. This is linked with work being undertaken by two
major German programmes, the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) of
France, ICIMOD, the Ford Foundation and UNICEF.
86. The World Bank is providing loans to Governments for carrying out about
50 projects specifically in mountain areas, some of which are using highly
innovative approaches. Three main areas of challenge have been identified:
recognition of mountains as ecosystems; culture in mountain ecosystems; and
finance and support for action.
3. Organizations outside the United Nations system
87. The role of NGOs in the follow-up to chapter 13 was confirmed at the
first ad hoc inter-agency meeting, which recommended that NGOs initiate a
consultative process on the "mountain agenda" and make proposals to the
Commission on Sustainable Development. In response to that recommendation,
TMI convened the NGO Workshop on the Mountain Agenda (West Virginia, United
States of America, 22-26 July 1994), where detailed plans were made for a
global conference of intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations on
the follow-up to chapter 13, to be held at Lima in February 1995, in time to
make proposals for the third session of the Commission, in April 1995. The
Workshop also concluded that NGOs would cooperate with Governments in the
implementation of chapter 13, as approved by UNCED.
88. It is anticipated that following the interest and constructive
commitment of international NGOs, national and local NGOs will become directly
involved in the follow-up to chapter 13. Their participation will be
increasingly important as implementation of decisions related to the chapter
moves from meeting rooms to the field.
89. The International Centre for Alpine Environment (ICALPE) is an
independent, international organization which, since 1987, constitutes a
permanent scientific basis for research, management and policy actions on
environmental and other matters in the mountain regions of Europe, including
eastern Europe and the Russian Federation.
90. ICIMOD has the potential to play a key role in implementing chapter 13.
It has a strong regional focus (the Hindu Kush-Himalayas region), but a global
conceptual orientation. There is a high degree of coincidence between ICIMOD
activities and Agenda 21. The Centre has stepped up the process of promoting
collaboration in many different fields of key importance to sustainable
mountain development. In 1994 alone, 10 workshops and seminars were held,
during which scientists and development workers from its eight member
countries identified key issues of common interest, and case studies,
guidelines and manuals were developed as well as on-farm research and
demonstration sites in six countries of the Hindu Kush-Himalayas. In
connection with its tenth anniversary, ICIMOD organized an International
Symposium on Mountain Environment and Development in December 1993.
91. IMS had a major role in the "mountain agenda" group promoting the
mountain cause and in the inclusion of the chapter on mountains in Agenda 21.
Much of the present knowledge and clarifications in the discussion on
mountains have been developed in partnership arrangements between IMS, UNU,
IUCN, UNESCO and ICIMOD. The journal Mountain Research and Development and
the International Mountain Network Newsletter could be used as a basis for
chapter 13 networks. The President of IMS is currently Chairman of the
International Geographical Union's Commission on Mountain Geoecology. Ongoing
activities include involvement in a research pilot project of the Yunnan
Academy of Social Sciences, China, with support from the Ford Foundation, and
UNU/IMS support for the establishment and growth of regional mountain
associations: African Mountains Association, East Asia/Pacific Mountain
Association and Andean/Latin American Mountain Association.
92. IUCN is involved in supporting national and international mountain
initiatives, including the protection of mountain regions through the
establishment of national parks and other protected areas. Since 1991, it has
had a Vice-Chairman for Mountains in its Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas (covering a network of 180 managers and researchers) and a
staff person with part-time responsibilities for mountains. Activities
include support for the establishment of the Karakorum National Park in
Pakistan and the evaluation of several of the world's most outstanding
mountain parks for inclusion in UNESCO's World Heritage List. The total
number of mountain protected areas on the List is now 31.
93. The programmes of TMI focus on ecosystem conservation, education and
economic opportunity for mountain people and "sacred" mountains, linking
culture and natural resource management practices. The Institute was
established 20 years ago. Its main achievements are in the areas of base-line
surveys and biological databases; applied technology; people and wildlife
interactions; mountain agriculture, non-timber forest resources and crafts;
training and capacity-building; institutional development; cultural research
and preservation, including archaeology; and innovative partnership. TMI
organized the highly successful NGO Planning Workshop on the Mountain Agenda
in July 1994, laying the foundation for the global conference of
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations in February 1995.
III. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS FOR ACTION
A. Conclusions
94. Chapter 13 of Agenda 21 (Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable
mountain development) is recognized, not only by Governments and inter-
governmental organizations, but also by the international mountain NGO
community, as the basic plan of action for the "mountain agenda".
95. The ad hoc inter-agency meeting on chapter 13 convened by the Task
Manager, FAO, in March 1994, and the NGO Planning Workshop on the Mountain
Agenda convened by TMI in July 1994, have produced a productive cooperative
network of intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations concerned with
sustainable mountain development. There is agreement that a political and
economic "mountain lobby" needs to be generated, enabling mountain people to
fully demonstrate their potential contribution to sustainable development,
with a thorough understanding of the specificity of mountain issues, similar
to that for small island developing States.
96. The "mountain agenda" therefore includes the launching of a process of
preparation of a number of initiatives, particularly through the organization
of regional consultations, leading to a major global consultation on
sustainable mountain development, including a follow-up plan of action.
Multi-donor support and host and sponsoring countries are needed.
97. One of the main difficulties encountered so far is the lack of adequate
recognition of mountain areas as something special, with common problems not
shared by lowlands, and therefore worthy of special attention. The fragility
of mountain ecosystems and the adverse impact of the degradation of those
ecosystems on lowland populations have not been fully appreciated. This is
reflected in the lack of mountain programmes of agencies, but maybe even more
so at the national level, where it is still rare to find departments,
programmes or legislation, dealing in a comprehensive way with mountain
issues. More often than not mountain areas and populations are at the "thin
end" of general national programmes of education, health and infrastructure,
mainly because the cost per person of providing such services in remote
mountain areas is above the national average and therefore seen by sectoral
agencies as uneconomical, and because mountain communities often lack the
necessary economic and political influence.
98. The empowerment, equity and equality of mountain women should receive
priority attention, together with improved services related to women's
specific needs, reproductive health and nutrition; education aimed at closing
existing literacy gaps between boys and girls, and between men and women; and
ensuring women's access to development and technology transfer programmes.
99. Sustainable mountain development in many places has to start with a
change in attitude towards indigenous people and in the way they are treated.
Their right to the land should be recognized, as should their knowledge of the
special living conditions and natural resource management in the mountains,
and they should be protected from exploitation by extractive industries, drug
dealers, tourist operators and guerrilla movements. The role of children and
youth in sustainable mountain development should also be recognized. Not only
will they inherit the responsibility of looking after the environment in the
future, but they can also be active supporters of today's endeavour. Their
interests can best be served by employing a participatory approach that
involves them in the whole process of developing programmes and action plans.
100. A new and hard look needs to be taken at the overall flow of resources
and services to and from mountain areas, including water, forest and range
products, labour and government services. New or revised water tariffs,
forest and mining royalties, grazing rights and leases, marketing of medicinal
herbs and other non-wood forest products, fees for access to national parks
and licences for tourism operations are all possible income earners for
mountain communities, which would in turn allow these communities to invest
in, and not receive as government hand-outs, housing, communications, roads,
education and nutrition. Of special interest in financing mountain
development is the increasing recognition of the economic value of water (in
this connection see chapter 18 of Agenda 21 and the Water Resources Management
Policy Papers of the World Bank).
101. Some progress has been made concerning the sustainability of development
in mountain areas. Government and development agencies are increasingly aware
that the limiting factors in sustainable mountain development is not only lack
of "assistance" (technical, medical, food) but also lack of "empowerment"
(land titles, local autonomy, generation of income). There is a need to
examine the relationship of chapter 13 with other chapters of Agenda 21 and to
analyse the extent to which the concerns of mountain areas can be better
integrated in the follow-up action on other chapters. Of equal importance is
the analysis of ongoing programmes of United Nations organizations, including
the World Bank, the CGIAR centres and donor agencies to see how priorities for
mountain areas are reflected.
B. Proposals for action
102. The main proposals for action were identified through a broad
participatory process involving the major NGOs and were made in five areas in
which progress is deemed to be urgently needed: eradicating poverty;
strengthening a global information network and database; strengthening country
capacity; raising awareness through the preparation and organization of a
world conference on sustainable mountain development; and formulating and
negotiating regional or subregional mountain conventions and possibly
developing a global mountain charter.
103. The estimated average total annual cost of implementing the activities
of chapter 13 made by the Conference secretariat prior to the Conference
should be reviewed by Governments, leading to readily available or additional
resources being earmarked for immediate action, especially action directed
towards eradicating poverty. It may be recalled that there are already a
number of international, national and local organizations with a mandate in
sustainable mountain development, but with severe limitations of staff and
funding. Matching their institutional mandate, professional expertise and
proved record with adequate financial support would have a direct measurable
impact in the short and medium term.
104. Support should be provided for strengthening a global information
network and database, as outlined in chapter 13 of Agenda 21, programme area A
(Generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology and sustainable
development of mountain ecosystems). A small secretariat should be
established for this purpose. The proposed lead agency is UNU, in
collaboration with FAO, IMS and TMI, among others. The network would provide
the linkage between NGOs, regional mountain associations, mountain scholars
and academic institutions, and should ensure the process of bringing increased
understanding of mountain ecosystems, watershed processes and
culture-development processes to decision makers and the public concerned.
The network would also promote research and monitoring activities at the
grass-roots level. Databases would enable the preparation of atlases that
highlighted the global and regional role of mountain ecosystems. Support
would be given to regional assessments and surveys, regional mountain database
and information systems and regional action guidelines, as well as to
monitoring the state of the environment and development of the world's
mountains.
105. Support should be provided for generating country capacity and
formulating national mountain action programmes as outlined in chapter 13 of
Agenda 21, programme area B (Promoting integrated watershed development and
alternative livelihood opportunities). Initially, a small-grants mountain
facility would be needed to assist countries in formulating and initiating
implementation of sustainable mountain development programmes. Consideration
should be given to decentralizing decision-making and programme formulation to
the level of administrative units. Proposed lead agencies are FAO, UNDP,
UNEP, UNICEF and bilateral donors. Primary environmental care on a watershed
basis could provide a conceptual framework, whereas the planning and
formulation methodologies developed by TFAP could serve as a model for a
country-driven, multi-stakeholder, process-oriented, participatory approach.
Increased funding for poverty alleviation as a first step towards sustainable
development in mountains is urgently required.
106. The Commission on Sustainable Development may wish to urge interested
countries and organizations to promote initiatives aimed at raising awareness,
including the organization of a world conference on sustainable mountain
development. Host country and sponsoring countries and agencies would need to
be identified. It is proposed that such a conference be held early in 1997.
In preparation for the conference, regional intergovernmental workshops would
be organized. Non-governmental organizations would be actively involved in
the process. The three main objectives of the conference would be (a) to
mobilize a political and economic "mountain lobby" capable of demonstrating to
Governments, policy makers and planners the potential contribution of mountain
areas to national and regional development; (b) to introduce the financial and
planning instruments needed to incorporate mountain development into national
plans and budgets; and (c) to examine the specific human, social and
technological characteristics of mountain areas.
107. Support should be provided for the formulation, negotiation and
implementation of regional or subregional mountain conventions and possibly
the formulation of a global mountain charter.
Notes
1/ Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by
the Conference (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and
corrigendum), resolution 1, annex II.
2/ Two main groups of mountainous countries should be considered in
this context - those where mountain people and mountain areas constitute the
main focus of development (Bhutan, Lesotho, Nepal, Yemen), and those where
mountain people and mountain areas are only a part of the national socio-
economic scene (China, Ethiopia, India).
3/ In terms of poverty and the impact of environmental degradation,
children and women in poor mountain areas constitute the most disadvantaged
and vulnerable groups. Statistical data point to some of the highest infant
and maternal mortality rates in mountainous regions of developing countries.
4/ A special situation exists in eastern and southern Africa and on a
more limited scale in other tropical mountainous countries, in the sense that
the uplands, because of their favourable climates and fertile soils, have been
occupied by wealthy farmers and farming enterprises. These include tea and
coffee estates, forest and fruit tree plantations and cattle and wildlife
farms. Long-term sustainability of development in such areas appears to be
linked more to socio-political aspects than to environmental considerations,
since these areas are not particularly fragile and soil erosion can be kept
within acceptable limits. Provided politically acceptable land ownership
patterns and levels of employment can be maintained, these uplands have the
potential for very high production and income-generation levels and for
playing an important role in the national economy.
5/ Report of the International Conference on Population and
Development, Cairo, 5-13 September 1994 (A/CONF.171/13 and Add.1), chap. I,
resolution 1, annex.
6/ Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development ..., resolution 1, annex II, para. 13.8.
7/ The complete list of agencies involved up to the time of reporting
in the E-mail Network on Mountains and with identified focal points for
follow-up to chapter 13 include: ILO, UNESCO, World Bank, World Monetary
Organization, IFAD, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development, UNDP, UNEP, UNICEF, World Food
Programme, UNU, United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat),
Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development of the United
Nations Secretariat, African Development Bank, ICIMOD, IUCN, IUFRO, TMI, IMS,
CIP/CGIAR, CIRAF, IDRC and African Mountain Association. In addition, a
number of universities and national NGOs participated in the NGO Planning
Workshop on the Mountain Agenda convened by TMI in July 1994, including the
International Academy of the Environment (Geneva), Worldwatch Institute,
Office of the Governor of the Pueblo of Zuni (United States of America),
University of Bern (Switzerland), Charles University of Prague (Czech
Republic), the University of San Andre's (La Paz, Bolivia), Earth Council (San
Jose', Costa Rica), the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the South-East Asian
Mountain Association, the University of Oxford (United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland), King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation
(Nepal), and the Fundacio'n Peruana para la Conservacio'n de la Naturaleza.
The International Centre for Alpine Environment (ICALPE) is also actively
involved in international scientific cooperation on environmental issues in
mountain areas in Europe.
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Date last posted: 2 December 1999 13:24:30
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